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The 

otton Textile Worker's 
Handbook 



A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK 
For All Persons Interested In 

he Spinning of Cotton Yarns, the Weaving of 
Cotton Fabrics, and the Yarn and Cloth 
Calculations Incidental 
Thereto 



BY 

International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON, PA. 



2d Edition, 7th Thousand, 2d Impression 



scranton, pa. 
International Textbook Company 



<^^„^' 



ft'" 



Copyright, 1913, 1920, by 

International Textbook Company 

Copyright in Great Britain 

All Rights Reserved 



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m 2. 



Press of 

International Textbook Company 

Scranton, Pa. 

77368 



©CU566650 
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PREFACE 

In this work, the publishers have not attempted 
to produce a condensed cyclopedia covering the 
ottensive field of cotton manufacturing, but they 
have aimed to present a useful reference book 
convenient to carry in the pocket — a pocketbook 
in truth — and containing information, especially 
rules, tables, etc., often used and required by 
superintendents, overseers, fixers, and, in fact, all 
persons engaged or interested in the great cotton 
textile manufacturing industry and its many 
ramifications. 

The intention has been to select from a vast 
amount of material only that which is most likely 
to be of use in connection with daily work or to 
which reference will be made most frequently. 
The treatment of many subjects is of necessity 
brief, but these matters have been covered to the 
full extent of the available space, and the text 
relating thereto includes that which is most 
valuable for frequent reference. The material 
on yarn calculations, cloth calculations, and 
draft calculations presents, in each case, a fin- 
ished treatise that, it is hoped, will prove of 
great value. Many tables are included and a 

iii 



IV 



PREFACE 



great number of these, such as, for instance, the 
cotton-yarn numbering table, the cotton-roving 
numbering table, and the many tables indicating 
the production of various machines under a 
wide range of conditions, should prove of daily 
use. Other tables and much information and 
data relative to the timing, setting, and adjust- 
ment of textile machinery will be of importance 
on many occasions. Great care has been taken 
to insure the accuracy of the large number of 
rules included, and these will be found entirely 
trustworthy. 

This handbook has been prepared by, and 
-under the supervision of, Mr. C. J. Brickett, 
Principal of our School of Textiles. 

International Correspondence Schools 
January, 1920 



INDEX 



Adjusting dobby knives, 
266 
shuttle-feeler thread cut- 
ter, 290 
the binders, 260 
the lug strap, 259 
the protector motion, 260 
Adjustment of filling- 
changing mechanism, 
287 
Advantages of metallic 

rolls, 145 
Albert twill, Filling-flush, 
312. 
twill", Warp-flush, 312 
All-seed cotton, 95 
Allowance for size, 54 
Allowances made in calcu- 
lating production and 
draft of metallic rolls, 
83 
on calculated production 
of ring frames, 202 
American cotton, 94 
cotton. Drawing-roll set- 
tings for, 147 
Amsterdam system of num- 
bering woolen yarns, 25 
Angle of twills, 310 
Angled draft, 308 
Angular measure, 338 
Apothecaries' weight, 335 
Artificial silk, 23 
Automatic feeder, 106 
looms, 273 
stop-motions, 245 
Average counts of cloth, 58 
counts of cloth. Rule to 

find, 58, 67 
counts. Rule to find, 45 



Average number of yarn be- 
ing spun. Rule to find, 
205 
numbers, 45 

yards per pound, denier 
system, 20 
Avoirdupois weight. Table 
of, 334 



Back knife plate, 123 

rolls, 72 
Backing oH, 208 
Bale breaker, 105 
Banging off, 261 
Basket weaves, 319 

weaves, Fancy, irregular, 
and twilled, 320 
Bat-wing pick, 248 
Beam warpers, Production 
of, 233 

warping, 230 
Beamed yarns, 42 
Beams, Loom, 42 
Bearings, Table of dis-' 

tances between, 349 
Beater, 108 
Beating up, 245, 249 
Bedford-cord weaves, 332 

cords. Piques and, 328 
Belt fastenings, 353 

Rule to find length of 
crossed, 356 

Rule to find length of 
open, 356 
Belts, 352 

Care of, 352 

Horsepower transmitted 
by, 357 

Length of, 356 

Quarter-turn, 354 



INDEX 



Benders cotton, 95 

Bier, 52 

Binders, Adjusting the, 260 

Bloom, 100 

Bobbins, 195 

Sizes of, 195 
Bonnet, 'Doffer, 125 

Licker, 122 
Bex chains. Building, 269 
looms, 267 

motions. Timing of, 272 
Boxes, Leveling the, 272 
Break draft, 80 
Breaker, Bale, 105 

picker, 108 
Breaking weight of Ameri- 
can cotton warp yarns, 
Average, 34 
weight of cotton warp 
yarn, 33 
Broken crow weave. Fill- 
ing-flush, 312 
crow weave, Warp-fltish, 
313 
Brown Egyptian cotton, 95 
Brush gauge, 168 
Builder gear on mule. Rule 

to find, 216 
Building box chains, 269 

C 
Cabled yarns, 219 
Calculating draft of com- 
mon rolls, 78 
Calculation of colored 

mixes, 117 
Calculations, Card-clothing, 
128 

Cloth, 48 

Comber, 166 

Draft, 71 

Fly-frame, 178 

for filling yarn, 54 

for ring frames, 198 

for slashers, 237 

for twisters, 219 

for warp yarn, 52 

Harness, 50 

Loom, 250 

Mechanical, 347 

Ply-yarn, 35 

Yarn, 1 



Cam looms, 256 
Campbell twill, 313 
Cam-shaft gears on looms. 

Rule for finding, 256 
Cams on more than 2-har- 
ness work, Setting, 256 
Rule to find throw of 

harness, 247 
Setting selvage, 257 
Shedding by, 245 
Timing cbmber, 170 
Card clothing, 126 

-clothing calculations; 128 
clothing. Crown of, 128 
clothing, English counts 

of, 132 
clothing, English method 

of numbering, 131 
clothing, Rule to find 
points per square foot 
in, 129 
Draft of, 135 
production, 136 
Revolving-top flat, 120 
slivers. Weights of cot- 
ton, 137 
tooth. Crown of, 126 
tooth. Knee of, 126 
waste, 136 
Carded warp yarns, Rule 
to find standard break- 
ing weight of, 34 
Carding, Objects of, 120 
Cards, Care of, 137 
Cotton, 120 
Management of, 141 
Setting, 138 

Weight and horsepower 
of, 136 
Care of belts, 352 
of cards, 137 
of combers, 171 
of cotton-harness warp 

stop-motion, 290 
of pickers, 119 
of shuttle. Position and, 

288 
of steel-harness warp 
stop-inotion, 291 
Carriage, Mule, 205 
Cassimere twill, 312 
Cellulose, 93 



INDEX 



Cellulose silk, 23 
Center draft, 307 
Chain draft, 264 

drafts, 304 
Chains, Pegging harness, 
264 
Building box, 269 
Change gear, 362 

gears, Fly-frame, 183 
Changing counts on mule, 

214 
Check weaves, 323 
Circle, 342 
Pitch, 363 

Rule to find circumfer- 
ence and area of, 343 
Circular pitch, 363 
Circumferential speed of 

pulleys, 351 
Classification of cotton, 98 
Classifying cotton, 100 
Cloth, Average counts of, 
58 
calculations, 48 
calculations. Short rules 

for, 67 
Counts of, 48 
Cover on, 258 
measure, 337 
Rule to find average 

counts of, 58, 67 
Rule to find weight of, 

in ounces per yard, 56 
Rule to find yards per 

pound of, 56, 57 
samples, Figuring partic- 
ulars from, 57 
Slasher, 236 
Thin places in, 261 
Weight of, 56 
Weight of cotton, 48 
Weight of woolen, 49 
Weight of worsted, 49 
Width of, 57 
Yards per pound of, 57 
Clothing, Card, 126 
cylinder and doffer, 132 
flats, 132 
Open-set, 131 
Plain-set, 131 
Points per square foot in 
rib-set, 130 



Clothing, Points per square 
foot in twill-set, 131 
Rib-set, 128 
Twilled, 128 
Cohoes system of number- 
ing woolen yarns, 25 
Coiler head, 125 
Colored mixes. Calculation 

of, 117 
Combed warp yarns. Rule 
to find standard break- 
ing weight of, 35 
Comber, 161 
calculations, 166 
cushion-plate settings, 168 
cylinders. Setting and 

timing, 170 
Double-nip, 163 
feed-roll setting, 168 
gauge, 168 
settings, 167 
Single-nip, 161 
timings, 169 
waste, 173 

waste. Percentage of, 174 
Combers, Care of, 171 
Setting of, 167 
Timing of, 168 
Combination weaves, 322 
Combing, 155 
Combs, Setting top, 171 
Common rolls, 142 
rolls. Calculating draft 

of, 78 
rolls. Drafting with, 72 
rolls. Weighting of 
single-boss, 149 
Compound levers, 266 

-sizing test, 19 
Condenser, 109 
Cone, 345 
or pyramid, Rui'e to find 

volume of, 345 
or pyramid. Rule to find 
volume of frustum of, 
346 
pick, 248 
Constant dividend, 363 
factor, 362 

for builder change gear 
on mule. Rule to find, 
217 . 



INDEX 



Constant for twist on fly 
frames, Rule to find, 181 

for twist on mule, Rule 
to find, 209 

for twist on ring frames, 
Rule to find, 200 

of gearing. Rule to find, 
363 

Rule to find draft, 88 
Constants, 88, 362 

for equivalent cotton 
counts, 27 

for finding loom produc- 
tion, 253 

Twist, 28 
Contraction, 53 

in leno and lappet fab- 
rics, 64 

Rule to estimate warp, 69 

Warp, 53 
Corkscrew twills, 321 

weaves, 321 
Cost of ply yarns. Rule to 

find, 40 
Cotton, 92 

Allan-seed, 95 

American, 94 

Benders. 95 

Brown Egyptian, 95 

cards, 120 

cards, Speed calculations 
for, 133 

characteristics. Table of, 
96 

classification, Govern- 
ment, 99 

Classification of, 98 

Classifying, 100 

cloth. Weight of, 48 

designing, 302 

duck, Weight of, 49 

fiber. Measurements of, 
93 

fiber. Strength of. 93 

fiber, Structure of, 92 

Grades of American, 98 

Gulf, or New Orleans, 94 

-harness warp stop-mo- 
tion. Care of, 290 

Memphis, 95 

mill. Organization of, 294 

-mill planning, 294 



Cotton mixing, 103 

mixing, Rule to find 
number of sections 
a 104 

Oklahoma, 95 

Peelers, 95 

-roving numbering table, 
13 , 

Sea-island, 94 

Specific gravity of, 93 

Texas, 95 

Uplands, 95 

warp yarn, Breaking 
weight of, 33 

World's production of, 
101 

weaving, 245 

yarn and roving, Table 
of dividends for num- 
bering, 16 

-yarn numbering table, 5 

-yarn preparation, 92 

-yarn preparation, Proc- 
esses and objects of, 
102 

yarns. Table of length 
for, 2 

yarns. Table of weight 
for, 2 
Counter faller, 208 
Countershafts, 347 

Effect of, on speed, 351 

Rules to find diameter 
of, 348 
Counts, 1 

Average, 45 

Constants for equivalent 
cotton, 27 

Denier and dram equiva- 
lent, 23 

Equivalent, 26 

of card clothing, English, 
132 

of cloth, 48 

of cloth. Average, 58 

of cloth. Rule to find 
average, 67 

of cotton yarn. Methods 
of finding, 16 

of filling, 61 

of filling. Rule to find 
average, 68 



INDEX 



ISL 



Counts of filling to preserve 
weight of cloth, Rule 
to find, 67 
of filling to preserve 
yards per pound. Rule 
to find, 61 
of warp yarn, 58 
of yarn on a beam. Rule 

to find, 43 
of yarn to be folded with 
another to produce a 
given count. Rule to 
find, 37 
on mule, Changing, 214 
Rule to find average, 45 
Rule to find, when weight 
and length are given, 1 
Short methods of finding 
equivalent, 27 
Cover on cloth, 258 
Covering of top rolls, 142 
Cradle gauge, 168 
Crossed belt, Rule to find 

length of, 356 
Crow twill. Filling-flush, 
312 
twill. Warp-flush, 312 
Crown of card clothing, 128 

of card tooth, 126 
Cubic measure, 338 
Curved twills, 314 
Cushion-plate settings, 

Comber, 168 
Cut mark, 323 
system of numbering 

woolen yarns, 24 
Weight of, 60 
Cutting, 322 
Filling, 262 
picks, 329 
Cycles of mangle gear. 

Rule to find, 365 
Cylinder, 344 
and doffer, Clothing, 132 
5ule to find surface area 

of, 344 
Rule to find volume of, 

345 
Timing dobby, 267 
Cylinders, Setting and 
timing comber, 170 



D 

Dead roll, 137 

weighting, 148 
Delivery rolls, 73 
Denier, 17 
and dram equivalent 

counts, 23 
of raw silk yarns, Rule 

to find, 21 
system, Average yards 

per pound, 20 _ 
-system conversion table, 

19 
system of numbering silk 
yarns, 17 
Dent, 51 
Dents per inch in reed> 

Rule to find, 55 
Derivatives, Satin, 319 
Design, Elements of tex- 
tile, 302 
Designing, Cotton, 302 
Diameter, 342 
Diameters of shafts. Rules 
to find, 348 
of English and American 
standard wire, 127 
Diametral pitch, 364 
Diamond weaves, 316 
Dimensions of fly frames, 
189 
of ring spinning frames, 

196 
of twisters, 226 
Distance between bearings. 
Table of, 349 
between hangers, 349 
Dividend, Constant, 363 
Dividends for numbering 
cotton yarn and roving,. 
Table of, 16 
Dobbies, 262 
Double-index, 264 
Double-lift, 264 
Single-index, 264 
Single-lift, 264 
Dobby cylinder, Timing, 
267 
knives, Adiusting, 266 
Timing a, 265 
Doff^er bonnet, 125 

Clothing cylinder and, 132 



INDEX 



Dofifer, Speed of, 135 
Double-boss rolls, 142 

filling-fork arrangement, 
285 

-index dobbies, 264 

-lift dobbies, 264 

-nip comber, 163 

satins, 318 

-section pickers, 109 

-threaded worms, 364 
Doubling, 72, 90 
Draft, Angled, 308 

Break, 80 

calculations, 71 

Center, 307 

Chain, 264 

constant. Rule to find, 88 

Drawing-in, 50, 303 

gear, 183 

gear on mule, Rule to 
find, 214 

gear. Rule to find, 87, 89, 
184 

gears, 86 

Harness, 304 

Irregular point, 307 

Methods of finding, 74 

of card, 135 

of intermediate and fin- 
isher pickers, 116 

of metallic rolls. Allow- 
ances made in calculat- 
ing production and, 83 

of metallic rolls. Increase 
in, 86 

Point, 307 

Rule to find, 78, 87, 88, 89, 
91 

section, 309 

Skip, 308 

Straight, 306 
Drafting, 71 

Objects of, 71 

with common rolls, 72 
Drafts, Chain, 304 

Irregular reed, 62 

Resular point, 307 

Satin, 308 

Standard types of draw- 
ing-in, 306 
Dram system of numbering 
silk yarns, 21 



Draw of mule, 207 
Drawing frames, 150 
frames, Gearing of, 153 
frames, Management ofl 

155 
frames, Production of 

154 
-in draft, SO, 303 
-in drafts. Standard type^] 
of, 306 \ 

-roll settings for Ameri' 

can cotton, 147 
rolls, 142 

rolls. Setting of, 145 
Draws in a cop, Rule tc| 

find number of, 217 
Driven and driving pul 
leys. Rules for finding 
diameters and revolu 
tions of, 350 
gear. Rule to find speec 

of. 361 
gears. Driving and, 77 
Dry measure, 336 

twisters, 219 
Dual function of straddl 

bug, 285 
Duck, Weight of cotton, 4! 

Early picking, 259 
Eccentricity of lay, 249 
Egyptian cotton. Brown, 9! 
Elements of textile design 

302 

English counts of care 

clothing, 132 

method of numbering 

card clothing, 131 

Ends, 48 

in cloth. Rule to find, 5; 

in pattern. Rule to find 

47 

in warp, 60 

of each color, counts, oi 

material, in warp. Rule 

to find number of, 61 

on a beam. Rule to find 

43 
Selvage, 52 
Entwining twill. Fancy 
314 



INDEX 



Entwining twills, 313 
;qually-flush weaves, 310 
equivalent cotton counts, 

Constants for, 27 
counts, 26 
counts, Denier and dram, 

23 
counts. Short methods of 

finding, 27 
Ivener motion, 110 
^xtra-filling spot weaves, 

328 
-warp fabrics. Harness 
and chain drafts for, 
327 
-warp spot weaves, 325 

F 

'actor. Constant, 362 
""ancy basket weaves, 320 
entwining twill, 314 
filling patterns, 65 
twills, 313 
warp patterns, 61 
warps, 46 
"astenings. Belt, 353 
"eed-roll, Setting and tim- 
ing, 170 
-roll setting, Coinber, 168 
-rolls, 72 
"eeder. Automatic, 106 
^eeler filling-changing de- 
vice, 283 
filling-changing mecha- 
nism, Setting of, 289 
Shuttle, 277 
Feet of lum^ber. Rules to 

find, 347 
Figuring particulars from 

cloth samples, 57 
Fillet, 128 
Filleting, 128 

Rule to find length of, 133 
Filling, 46 
-changing device. Feeler, 

283 
-changing mechanism, 273 
-changing mechanism. Ad- 
justment of, 287 
-changing mechanism. 
Setting of feeler, 289 



Filling corkscrew weaves, 
321 

Counts of, 61 

cutting, 262 

-flush Albert twill, 312 

-flush broken crow weave, 
312 

-flush crow twill, 312 

-flush prunelle twill, 312 

-flush satin weaves, 317 

-flush weaves, 310 

-fork arrangement, 
Double, 285 

Kinky, 262 

Knocking off, 261 

motion, 280 

patterns, Fancy, 65 

-rib weaves, 321 

Rule to find average 
counts of, 68 

Rule to find weight of, 56 

spinning frames. Produc- 
tion of, 204 

-spot weaves, 324 

stop-motion. Timing the, 
260 

Wadding, 328 

Weight of, 56 

yarn, 46 

yarn, Calculations for, 54 

yarn. Rule to find hanks 
of, 70 

yarn. Rule to find weight 
of, 70 

yarn. Travelers for, 194 
Finger gauge, 168 
Finisher pickers. Draft of 
intermediate and, 116 

pickers, Intermediate and, 
110 
Fixing Northrop looms, 287 
Flat strippings, 124 
Flats, Clothing, 132 

Speed of, 135 
Floor space for cotton mill 
machinery. Table of 
machines and, 300 
Fluid measure. Apotheca- 
ries', 336 
Fly-frame bobbins, Rule to 
•find speed of. 181 
frame calculations, 178 



INDEX 



Fly-frame change gears, 183 
frame, Rule to find pro- 
duction of, 185 
frames, 175 
frames. Dimensions of, 

189 
frames. Production of, 

186 
frames, Rule to find con- 
stant for twist on, 181 
frames, Speed of, 188 
frames, Standard sizes 

of, 189 
frames, Twist constants 
for, 188 
Flying, Shuttles, 261 
Folded yarns of different 
counts, 37 
yarns of the same counts. 
35 
Frames, Fly, 175 

Drawing, 150 
Front knife plate, 125 

rolls, 73 
Frustum of pramid or cone, 
Rule to find volume of, 
346 

G 

Gauge box, 109 

Brush, 168 

Comber, 168 

Cradle, 168 

Finger, 168 

of spinning frames, 197 

Quadrant, 168 

Step, 168 
Gear blank. Rule to find 
diameter of, 364 

Change, 362 

Draft, 183 

Lay, 183 

Rule to find take-up 
change, 251 

Taper, 183 

Tension. 183 

Traverse, 183 

Twist, 183 
Gearing, 361 

of drawing frames, 153 

of measuring motion, 114 

of rolls, 75 



Gears, Draft, 86 

Driving and driven, 77 

Mangle, 365 
Grades of American cotton, 

98 
Gravity spindle, 195 
Grinder, Traverse, 138 
Grinding, 137 

rolls, 137 
Ground weave, 325 
Gulf, or New Orleans, cot- 
ton, 94 
Gum, 22 

H 

Hangers, Distance be- 
tween, 349 
Hank, 1 
of roving. Rule to find, 

91 
of roving. Rule to find 
average, 185 
Hanks of filling yarn. 
Rule to find, 70 
of warp yarn. Rule to 

find. 70 
per spindle on ring 
frames. Rule to find, 
202 
Harness calculations, 50 
cams, Rule to find throw 

of, 247 
chains. Pegging, 264 
and chain drafts for ex- 
tra-warp fabrics, 327 
draft, 304 

Rule to find number of 
heddles on, 50 
Harnesses, 48 
Head shaft, 347 
Headstock, Mule, 205 
Heddles on a harness. Rule 

to find number of, 50 
Hemp yarns, System of 

numbering, 25 
Heptagon, 342 
Herring-bone stripes, 314 
Hexagon, 342 
Honeycomb weaves, 322 
Hopper, 278 

Horsepower of belt. Rule 
to find, 357 



INDEX 



Horsepower of mules, 218 
transmitted by belts, 357 
transmitted by ropes, 
Rule to find, 359 



Inside taper, 132 
Intermediate and finisher 
pickers, 110 
and finisher pickers. 
Draft of, 116 
Irregular basket weaves, 
320 
point draft, 307 
reed drafts, 62 

J 

Jute yarns. System of num- 
bering, 25 

K 

Kinky filling, 262 
Knee of card tooth, 126 
Knife plate. Back, 123 

plate. Front, 125 
Knive^ Adjusting dobby, 
266 

Mote, 122 
Knocking off filling, 261 

li 

Lap, 108 

Lappet fabrics. Contrac- 
tion in leno and, 64 
Laps, Weight of, 119 
Late picking, 259 
Lay, Eccentricity of, 249 
gear, 183 

gear. Rule to find, 185 
Leather detaching roll. 
Setting and timing, 170 
Left-hand twist, 28 
Length of belts, 356 
of open belt. Rule to 

find, 356 
of staple, lOO 
of warp. Rule to find, 44 
of warp that can be 
placed on a beam. Rule 
to find, 44 
of yarn, Rule to find, 
when weight and counts 
are known, 2 



Lengths of yarns. Stand- 
ard, 24 
Leno and lappet fabrics. 

Contraction in, 64 
Let-off motions, 245 
Leveling the boxes, 272 
Lever, Rule to find weights 
supported by, 367 
weighting, 148 
Levers, 366 
Licker bonnet, 122 
screen, 122 
Speed of, 135 
Licking, 119 
Line, Pitch, 363 
shafts, 347 

shafts, Rules to find 
diameter of, 348 
Linear measure, 336 
Linen yarns. System of 

numbering, 24 
Liquid measure, 335 
Little Falls system cf 
numbering woolen 
yarns, 25 
Long measure, 336 
Loom beams, 42 
calculations, 250 
production, Constants for 

finding, 253 
Rule to find production 

of, 252 
The Northrop, 273 
Looms, Automatic, 273 
Box, 267 
Cam, 256 
Plain, 245 

Short method of finding 
production of, 253 
Loose-boss rolls, 142 
Lug strap, Adjusting the, 

259 
Lumber, Mensuration of, 
347 
Rules to find feet of, 347 

M 

Machines and floor space 
for cotton mill ma- 
chinery. Table of, 300 

Main shaft. Rules to find 
diameter of, 348 



INDEX 



Management of cards, 141 

of drawing frames, 155 
Mangle gear, Rule to find 
cycles of, 365 
gears, 365 
Mayo twill, 313 
Measure, Angular, 338 
Apothecaries' fluid, 336 
Cloth, 337 
Cubic, 338 . 
Dry, 336 

Linear, or long, 336 
Liquid, 335 
Square, 337 
Surveyor's, 337 
Measuring motion, 112 

motion, Gearing of, 114 
Measurements of cotton 

fiber, 93 
Measures, Miscellaneous, 
339 
of time, 338 
Weights and, 334 
Mechanical calculations, 

347 
Mechanism, Filling-chang- 
ing, 273 
Memphis cotton, 95 
Mensuration, 339 
of lumber, 347 
Metallic rolls, 82, 144 
rolls, Advantages of, 145 
rolls. Allowances made 
in calculating produc- 
tion and draft of, 83 
rolls. Increase in draft 

of, 86 
rolls. Weighting of 
single-boss, 149 
Metric system of yarn 
numbering, 25 
system, Rule to convert 

standard counts to, 26 
system. Rule to convert, 
to standard counts, 26 
Mixes, Calculation of col- 
ored, 117 
Mixing, Cotton, 103 
Mixings, Size, 243 
Money, Table of United 

States, 334 
Mote knives, 122 



Motion, Adjusting the pro- 
tector, 260 

Evener, 110 

Filling, 280 

Measuring, 112 

Parallel, 248 

Timing the picking, 259 
Motions, Let-off, 245 

Selvage, 256 

Take-up, 245 

Timing of box, 272 
Mule carriage, 205 

Draw of, 207 

headstock, 205 

Rule to find twist on, 208 

spinning, 205 

Stretch of, 207 
Mules, Horsepower of, 218 

Production of, 215 

N 

Needle-ground wire, 127 
New Hampshire system of 
numbering woolen 
yarns, 25 
New Orleans cotton, Gulf, 

or, 94 
Nippers, Setting and tim- 
ing, 171 
Nogg, 128 
Northrop loom, 273 
looms. Fixing, 287 
looms, _ Shuttle for, 278 
Numbering ply yarns, 35 
Numbers, Average, 45 

O 

Octagon, 342 

Off color of cotton, 100 

Oklahoma cotton, 95 

Open-set clothing, 131 

Opener, 107 

Organization of cotton mill, 

294 
Organize, 17 



Parallel motion, 248 
Parallelogram, Rule to find 

area of, 341 
Pattern of warp, 47 
Rule to find ends in, 47 



INDEX 



XV 



Patterns, Fancy filling, 65 

Fancy warp, 61 
Peelers cotton, 95 
Pegging harness chains, 264 

plan, 305 
Pentagon, 342 

Percentage of comber 
waste, 174 

of size, 54 
Perimeter, 342 
Pick, Bat-wing, 248 

Cone, 248 

Shoe, 248 

Sley and, 57 
Picker, Breaker, 108 
Pickers, Care of, 119 

Draft of intermediate and 
finisher, 116 

Double section, 109 

Intermediate and fin- 
isher, 110 

Single section, 109 

Starting, 260 
Picking, 245, 247 

Early, 259 

Late, 259 

motion. Timing the, 259 
Picks, 48 

Cutting, 329 
Pique weaves, 328 
Piques and Bedford cords, 

328 ^ 
Pitch circle, 363 

Circular, 363 

Diametra,], 364 

line, 363 
Plain looms, 245 

selvage motion, 256 

-set cJothing, 131 

weave, 302 
Plan, Pegging, 305 
Planning, Cotton-mill, 294 
Plow-ground wire, 127 
Ply-yarn calculations, 35 

yarns, 35 

yarns composed of more 
than two threads, Z7 

yarns, Cost of, 40 

yarns, Numbering, 35 

yarns of different counts, 
Z7 



Ply yarns of different ma- 
terials, 41 
yarns of spun silk, 40 
yarns of the same counts, 

35 
yarns, Rule to find cost 
of, 40 
Point draft, 307 
draft. Irregular, 307 
drafts. Regular, 307 
Pointed twills, 314 
Points per square foot in 
rib-set clothing, 130 
per square foot in twill- 
set clothing, 131 
Polygon, Rule to find area 

of regular, 342 
Position and care of 
shuttle, 288 
of warp line, 258 
Prism, Rule to find sur- 
face area of, 343 
Rule to find volume of, 
344 
Processes and objects of 
cotton yarn preparation, 
102 
Production, Card, 136 
Loom, 254 

of beam warpers, 233 
of drawing frames, 154 
of filling spinning frames, 

204 
of fly frame. Rule to 
' find, 185 
of fly frames, 186 
of loom. Rule to find, 252 
of looms, Short method 

of finding, 253 
of mule. Rule to find, 212 
of mules, 215 
of ribbon-laix machine, 

160 
of single-nip comber, 165 
of slashers, 240 
of sliyer-lap machine, 158 
of spinning frames, Rule 

to find, 203 
of spoolers, 229 
of twisters, 224 
of twisters. Rule to find, 
223 



INDEX 



Production of warp spin- 
ning frames, 203 
Table of loom, 254 
Protector motion, Adjust- 
ing the, 260 
Prunelle twill, 310 
twill. Filling-flush, 312 
twill. Warp-flush, 312 
Pyramid or cone, Rule to 
find volume, 345 
or cone. Rule to find 
volume of frustum of, 
346 
Pulleys, Driven and driv- 
ing, 350 

Quadrant gauge, 168 
Quadrilaterals, 340 
Quarter-turn belts, 354 

R 

Raw-silk yarns, Rule to 

find denier, yards, or 

weight of, 21 

-silk yarns. System of 

numbering, 17 

Recipe for top-roll varnish, 

144 
Rectangle, 340 
Reed, 48, 60 
drafts, Irregular, 62 
Rule to find dents per 

inch in, 55 
Sley of, 51 
Width at, 54 
Width in, 60 
Reeds, 51 
Reel. Wrap, 4 
Regular point drafts, 307 
twills, 310 
twills. Rule for making, 

310 
twist, 28 
Regulating the shed, 258 
Repeat of weave, 303 
Representation of weave, 

303 
Resultant counts of three 
or more sinele yarns, 
Rule to find, 38 



Resultant counts when 
more than one end of 
the different counts are 
folded, Rule to find, 38 
counts when two yarns 
of different numbers 
are folded. Rule to find, 
39 
Revolving-top flat card, 120 
Rhomboid, 340 
Rhombus, 340 
Rib-set clothing, 128 

-set clothing, Points per 
square foot in, 130 
Rib weaves, 320 
Ribbon-lap machine, 156 
-lap machine. Production 
of, 160 
Ribs, 51 

Right-hand twist, 28 
Rim pulley on mule, Rule 
to find diameter of, 210 
Ring frames, Allowances 
on calculated produc- 
tion of, 202 
frames. Calculations for, 

198 
frames. Rule _ to find 
hanks per spindle on, 
202 
spinning, 190 
spinning frames, Dimen- 
sions of, 196 
twister, 219 
Roll, Dead, 137, 
Setting and timing 

leather detaching, 170 
Setting steel detaching, 
170 
Rolls, Advantages of me- 
tallic, 145 
Back, or feed, 72 
Calculating draft of com- 
mon, 78 
Common, 142 
Covering of top, 142 
Delivery, or front, 7Z 
Double-boss, 142 
Drafting with common, 72 
Drawing, 142 
Gearing of, 75 
Grinding, 137 



INDEX 



Rolls, Loose-boss, 142 

Metallic, 82, 144 

Scouring, 149 

Setting of drawing, 145 

Shell, 142 

Single-boss, 142 

Solid-boss, 142 

Varnishing of top, 144 

Weighting of single-boss, 
149 

Weighting of top, 147 
Rope transmission, 358 
Ropes, Rule to find horse- 
power transmitted by, 
359 
Roving, 2 

Rule to find average 
hank of, 185 

Rule to find hank of, 91 

Rule to find twist in,- 180 

Size of, 12 

Sizing, 188 

Sizing yarn and, 2 

Table of dividends for 
numbering cotton yarn 
and, 16 
Rule for finding cam-shaft 
gears on looms, 256 

for making regular twills, 
310 

to convert metric system 
counts to standard sys- 
tem, 26 

to convert silk yarns 
numbered by denier 
system to equivalent 
counts in dram system, 
23 

to convert silk yarns 
numbered by dram sys- 
tem to denier system, 
23 

to convert standard-sys- 
tem counts to metric 
system, 26 

to estimate warp con- 
traction, 69 

to find area of circle, 343 

to find area of parallelo- 
gram, 341 

to find area of regular 
polygon, 342 



Rule to find area of trape- 
zium, 341 
to find area of trapezoid, 

341 
to find average counts, 45 
to find average counts of 

cloth, 58, 67 
to find average counts of 

filling, 68 
to find average hank of 

roving, 185 
to find average number 

of yarn being spun, 205 
to find builder gear on 

mule, 216 
to find circumference of 

circle, 343 
to find constant for 

builder change gear on. 

mule, 217 
to find constant for twist 

on fly frames, 181 
to find constant for twist 

on mule, 209 
to find constant for twist 

on ring frames, 200 
to find constant of gear- 
ing, 363 
to find constant of take- 
up motion, 252 
to find cost of ply yarns, 

40 
to find counts of filling 

to preserve weight of 

cloth, 67 
to find counts of filling 

to preserve yards per 

pound, 61 
to find cpunts of one 

system equivalent to 

that of another, 26 
to find counts of yarn on 

a beam, 43 
to find counts of yarn to 

be folded with another 

to produce a given 

count, 39 
to find counts when 

weight and length are 

given, 1 
to find cycles of mangle 

gear, 365 



INDEX 



Rule to find diameter of 

countershafts, 348 
to find diameter of driven 

pulley, 350 
to find diameter of driv- 
ing pulley, 350 
to find diameter of gear 

blank, 364 
to find diameter of line 

shafts, 348 
to find diameter of main 

shaft, 348 
to find diameter of rim 

pulley on mule, 210 
to find denier of raw-silk 

yarns, 21 
to find dents per inch in 

reed, 55 
to find draft, 78, 87, 88, 

89, 91 
to find draft constant, 88 
to find draft gear, 87, 89, 

184 
to find draft gear on 

mule, 214 
to find dramage of thrown 

silk yarns, 22 
to find ends in cloth, 53 
to find ends in pattern, 

47 
to find ends on a beam, 43 
to find feet of lumber, 

347 
to find hank of roving, 91 
to find hanks of filling 

yarn, 70 
to find hanks of warp 

yarn, 70 
to find hanks per spindle 

on ring frames, 202 
to find horsepower of 

belt, 357 
to find horsepower trans- 
mitted by ropes, 359 
to find lay gear, 185 
to find length of crossed 

belt, 356 
to find length of filleting, 

133 
to find length of one side 

of square equal in area 

to given circle, 343 



Rule to find length of open 
belt, 356 

to find length of warp, 44 

to find length of warp 
that can be placed on a 
beam, 44 

to find length of yarn 
when weight and counts 
are known, 2 

to find number of draws 
in a cop, 217 

to find number of ends of 
each color, counts, or 
material in warp, 61 

to find number of heddles 
on a harness, 50 

to find _ number of sec- 
tions in a cotton mix- 
ing, 104 _ 

to find points per square 
foot in card clothing, 
129 

to find production of fly 
frame, 185 

to find production of 
loom, 252 

to find production of 
mule, 212 

to find production of 
spinning frames, 203 

to find production of 
twisters, 223 

to find required width of 
belt. 357 

to find resultant counts 
of three or more single 
yarns, 38 

to find resultant counts 
when more than one 
end of the different 
counts are folded, 38 

to find resultant counts 
when two yarns of dif- 
ferent numbers are 
folded, 37 

to find revolutions of 
driven pulley, 350 

to find revolutions of 
driving pulley, 350 

to find speed gear on 
mule, 210 



INDEX 



iule to find speed of 

driven gear, 361 
to find speed of driven 

pulley, 351 
to find speed of fly-frame 

bobbins, 181 
to find speed of traveler, 

199 
to find speed of worm- 
gear, 364 
to find standard breaking 

weight of carded warp 

yarns, 34 
to find standard breaking 

weight of combed warp 

yarns, 35 
to find surface area of 

cylinder, 344 
to find surface area of 

prism, 343 
to find surface area of 

sphere, 346 
to find surface velocity 

of pulley, 351 
to find take-up change 

gear, 251 
to find teeth on gear, 364 
to find tension gear, 184 
to find throw of harness 

cams, 247 
to find traverse gear of 

spooler, 229 
to find traverse of 

spoolers, 230 
to find twist gear, 184 
to find twist gear ^n 

ring frames, 200 
to find twist in roving, 

180 
to find twist on mule, 208 
to find twist on ring 

frames, 20O 
to find twist on spinning 

frame, 199 
to find twist to be in- 
serted in yarns, 28 
to find volume of cone or 

pyramid, 345 
to find volume of cylin- 
der, 345 
to find volume of frustum 

of pyramid or cone, 346 



Rule to find volume of 

prism, 344 
to find volume of sphere, 

346 
to find weight of cloth, 56 
to find weight of cloth in 

ounces per yard, 56 
to find weight of filling, 

56 
to find weight of filling 

yarn, 70 
to find weight of raw- 
silk yarns, 21 
to find weight of single 

yarns in ply yarn, 39 
to find weight of sliver, 

91 
to find weight of thrown- 

silk yarns, 22 
to find weight of warp 

yarn, 70 
to find weight of warp 

yarn per cut, 53 
to find weigTit of yarn on 

a beam, 44 
to find weight of yarn 

when length and counts 

are known, 2 
to find weight supported 

by lever, 367 
to find width of warp in 

reed, 55 
to find yards per pound 

of cloth, 56, 57 
to find yards per pound 

of raw-silk yarns, 21 
to find yards per pound 

of thrown-silk yarns, 22 
Rules for cloth calcula- 
tions, Short, 67 
to find area of triangle, 

340 
Run system of numbering 

woolen yarns, 24 



Samples, Figuring particu- 
lars from cloth, 57 
Satin and miscellaneous 
weaves, 317 
derivatives, 319 
drafts, 308 



INDEX 



Satin weaves. Filling-flush, 
317 

weaves, Warp-flush, 317 
Satins, Double, 318 

Five-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 9-, 10-, 
11-, and 12-end, 318 
Schappe silk yarns, 23 
Scouring rolls, 149 
Screen, Licker, 122 
Sea-island cotton, 94 
Section draft, 309 
Self weighting, 147 
Selvage cams, Setting, 257 

ends, 52 

motion, Plain, 256 

motion, Tape, 257 

motions, 256 
Sericin, 22 

Setting and timing comber 
cylinders, 170 

and timing feed-roll, 170 

and timing leather de- 
taching roll, 170 

and timing nippers, 171 

and timing Whitin high- 
speed comber, 169 

cams on more than 2- 
harness work, 256 

cards, 138 

Comber feed- roll, 168 

of combers, 167 

of drawing rolls, 145 

of feeler filling-changing 
mechanism, 289 

selvage cams, 257 

steel detaching roll, 170 

top combs, 171 
Settings, Comber, 167 

Comber cushion-plate, 168 

Spooler, 228 
Shafts and shafting, 347 
Shed, 48, 245 

Regulating the, 258 
Shedding by cams, 245 

Timing the, 258 
Shell rolls, 142 
Shoe pick, 248 
Short methods of finding 
equivalent counts, 27 

rule to find weight of 
single yarns in ply 
yarn, 40 



Short rules for cloth calcu- 
lations, 67 
Shuttle feeler, 277 

-feeler thread cutter, 284 

-feeler thread cutter. Ad- 
justing, 290 

for Northrop looms, 278 

Position and care of, 288 
Shuttles flying, 261 
Side-ground wire, 127 
Silk, Artificial, 23 

Cellulose, 23 

Ply yarns of spun, 40 

yarns, 17 

yarns, Denier system of 
numbering, 17 

yarns. Dram system of 
numbering, 21 

yarns, Schappe, 23 

yarns. Sizing raw, 17 

yarns. Spun, 17 

yarns, System of num- 
bering raw, 17 

yarns. Thrown, 17 
Single-boss rolls, 142 

-end stripes, 323 

-index dobbies, 264 

-lift dobbies, 264 

-nip comber, 161 

-nip comber, Production 
of, 165 

-section pickers, 109 

-threaded worms, 364 

yarns, 1 
Size, 240 

Allowance for, 54 

mixings, 243 

of roving, 12 

Percentage of, 54 
Sizes of bobbins, 195 

of spools, 227 

of travelers, 192 
Sizing, 3 

materials, Weight of, 243 

raw silk yarns, 17 

roving, 188 

test. Compound-, 19 

yarn and roving, 2 
Skein, 3 
Skip drafts, 308 

twills, 314 
Slasher, 234 



INDEX 



Slasher cloth, 236 ^ 
Slashers, Calculations for, 
237 
Production of, 240 
Slashing, 234 

Objects of, 234 
Sley, 48 
and pick, 57 
of reed, 51 
Sliver-lap machine, 156 
-lap machine, Production 

of, 158 
Rule to find weight of, 91 
Slivers, Weights of cotton- 
card, 137 
Slubber, 175 
Solid-boss rolls, 142 
Specific gravity of cotton, 

93 
Speed calculations for cot- 
ton cards, 133 
Effect of countershafts 

on, 351 
gear on mule. Rule to 

find, 210 
of doffer, 135 
of driven gear, Rule to 

find, 361 
of flats, 135 
of fly-frame bobbins, 

Rule to find, 181 
of fly frames, 188 
of licker, 135 
of pulleys. Circumferen- 
tial, 351 
of traveler. Rule to find, 

199 
of worm-gear. Rule to 
find, 364 
Sphere, Rule to find sur- 
face area and volume 
of, 346 
Spindle, Gravity, 195 

spring, 262 
Spindles, 195 
Spinnerets, 24 

Spinning frame, Rule to 
find twist on, 199 
frames. Gauge of, 197 
frames, Rule to find pro- 
duction of, 203 
Mule, 205 



Spinning, Ring, 190 
Splitting, 119 

Spooler, Rule to find tra- 
verse gear of, 229 
settings, 228 _ . 

Spoolers, Production of, 
229 
Rule to find traverse of, 
230 
Spooling, 226 
Spools, Sizes of, 227 
Spot weaves, 324 
weaves. Extra-filling, 328 
weaves. Extra-warp, 325 
Square, 340 
equal in area to given 
circle, Rule to find 
length of one side of, 
343 
measure, 337 
Spring, Spindle, 262 
Spun silk. Ply yarns of, 
40 
silk yarns, 17 
Standard lengths of yarns, 

.24 
sizes of fly frames, 189 
twills, 312 

types of drawing-in 
drafts, 306 
Staple, 100 
Length of, 100 
Strength of, 100 
Starting pickers, 360 
Steel detaching roll. Set- 
ting, 170 
-harness warp stop-mo- 
tion. Care of, 291 
gauge, 168 
Stop-motioii, Timing the 
filling, 260 
-motions. Automatic, 245 
-motions, Warp, 286 
Straddle bug. Dual func- 
tion of, 285 
Straight draft, 306 
Strength of cotton fiber, 
93 
of staple, 100 
Stretch of mule, 207 
Stripe weaves, 322 
Stripes, Herring-bone, 314 



INDEX 



Stripes, Single-end, 323 
Stripping, 137 
Strippings, Flat, 124 
Structure of cotton fiber, 92 
Surveyor's measure, 337 

T 

Table, Cotton-roving num- 
bering, 13 
Cotton-yarn numbering, 5 
Denier system conver- 
sion, 19 
of allowances on calcu- 
lated production of 
ring frames, 202 
of angular measure, 338 
of apothecaries' fluid 

measure, 336 
of apothecaries' weight, 

335 
of avoirdupois weight, 334 
of cloth measure, 337 
of comber settiiigs, 167 
of comber timings, 169 
of constants for finding 

loom production, 253 
of cotton characteristics, 

96 
of cubic measure, 338 
of dimensions of ring 

spinning frames, 196 
of dimensions of twist- 
ers, 226 
of distance between bear- 
ings, 349 
of dividends for number- 
ing cotton yarn and 
roving, 16 
of dry measure, 336 
of fluid measure, 336 
of length for cotton 

yarns, 2 
of linear measure, 336 
of liquid measure, 335 
of long measure, 336 
of loom production, 254 
of machines and floor 
space for cotton mill 
machinery, 300 
of measures of time, 338 
of miscellaneous mea- 
sures, 339 



Table of production of 
beam warpers, 223 

of production of drawing 
frames, 154 

of production of filling 
spinning frames, 204 

of production of fly 
frames, 186 

of production of mules, 
215 

of production of ribbon- 
lap machine, 160 

of production of single- 
nip comber, 165 

of production of sliver- 
lap machine, 158 

of production of spoolers, 
229 

of production of twisters, 
224 

of production of warp 
spinning frames, 203 

of sizes of bobbins, 195 

of sizes of spools, 227 

of sizes of travelers, 192 

of square measure, 337 

of standard sizes of fly 
frames, 189 

of surveyor's measure, 
337 

of travelers for filling 
yarn, 194 

of travelers for warp 
yarn, 193 

of troy weight, 335 

of twist constants for fly 
frames, 188 

of United States money, 
334 

of weight for cotton 
yarns, 2 

of weights of cotton card 
slivers, 137 

of weight of sizing ma- 
terials, 243 

Twist, 29 
Tail-ends, 132 
Take-up change gear. Rule 
to find, 251 

-up motion, Rule to find 
constant of, 252 

-up motions, 245- 



INDEX 



Tape selvage motion, 257 
Taper gear, 183 ' 

Inside, 132 
Teeth on gear, Rule to 

find number of, 364 
Temples, 245 
Tension gear, 183 

gear, Rule to find, 184 
Tester; Yarn, 33 
Texas cotton, 95 
Textile design, Elements 

of 302 
Thin places in cloth, 261 
Thread cutter, Adjusting 
shuttle-feeler, 290 

cutter. Shuttle-feeler, 284 
Three-harness twill, 310 
Thrown-silk yarns, 17 

-silk yarns, Rule to find 
dramage of, 22 

-silk yarns, Rule to find 
weight of, 22 
Time, Measures of, 338 
Timing a dobby, 265 

comber cams, 170 

dobby cylinder, 267 

of box motions, 272 

of combers, 168 

the filling stop-motion, 
260 

the picking motion, 259 

the shedding, 258 
Timings, Comber, 169 
Tinges, 100 
Top combs. Setting, 171 

-ground wire, 127 

-roll varnish. Recipe for, 
144 

rolls, Covering of, 142 

rolls, Weighting of, 147 
Tops 128 
Tram, 17 

Transmission, Rope, 358 
Trapezium, Rule to find 

area of. 341 
Trapezoid, Rule to find 

area of, 341 
Traveler, Rule to find 

speed of, 199 
Travelers, 193 

for filling yarn, 194 

for warp yarn, 193 



Travelers, Sizes of, 192 
Traverse gear, 183 

gear of spooler, Rule to 
find,, 229 

grinder, 138 

of spoolers, Rule to find, 
230 
Triangle, Rules to find 

area of, 340 
Troy weight, 335 
Twill angle, Method of 
finding, 311 

Campbell, 313 

Cassimere, 312 

Fancy entwining, 314 

Mayo, 313 

Prunelle, 310 

-set clothing. Points per 
square foot in, 131 

Three-harness, 310 

Venetian, 313 
Twilled basket weaves, 320 

clothing, 128 

weaves, 309 
Twills, Angle of, 310 

Corkscrew, 321 

Curved, 314 

Entwining, 313 

Fancy, 313 

Pointed, 314 

Regular, 310 

Skip, 314 

Standard, 312 
Twist, 188 

constants, 28 

constants for fly frames, 
188 

gear, 183 

gear on ring frames. 
Rule to find, 200 

gear. Rule to find, 184 

in roving. Rule to find, 

_ 180 

in yarns, 28 

Left-hand, 28 

on mule, Rule to find, 208 

on mule. Rule to find 
constant for, 209 

on ring frames, Rule to 
find. 200 

on ring frames. Rule to 
find constant for, 200 



INDEX 



Twist on spinning frame, 
Rule to find, 199 
Regular, 28 
Right-hand, 28 
table, 29 

to be inserted in yarns, 
Rule to find, 28 
Twister, Ring, 219 
Twisters, Calculations for, 
219 
Dimensions of, 226 
Dry, 219 

Production of, 224 
Rule to find production 

of, 223 

Wet, 219 

Twisting, 219 

Types of drawing-in drafts, 
Standard, 306 

U 

United States money. 

Table of, 334 
Uplands cotton, 95 

V 

Varnishing of top rolls. 144 
Velocity of pulley. Rule 

to find surface, 351 
Venetian twill, 313 
Viscose, 24 

W 

Wadding filling, 328 
Warp, 46 

contraction, 53 

contraction. Rule to es- 
timate, 69 

corkscrew weaves, 321 

Ends in, 60 

-flush Albert twill, 312 

-flush broken crow 
weave, 313 

-flush crow twill, 312 

-flush prunelle twill, 312 

-flush satin weaves, 317 

-flush weaves, 310 

in reed. Rule to find 
width of, 55 

line, Position of, 258 

Pattern of, 47 

patterns. Fancy, 61 

preparation, 226 



Warp-rib weave, 320 
Rule to find length of, 44 
spinning frames, Produc- 
tion of, 203 
-spot weaves, 324 
stop-motion, Care of cot- 
ton-harness, 290 
stop-motion, Care of 

steel-harness, 291 
stop-motions, 286 
stop-motions, General 

care of, 292 
that can be placed on a 
beam, Rule to find 
length of, 44 
yarn, 46 
yarn, Breaking weight 

of cotton, diZ 
yarn, Calculations for, 52 
yarn, Counts of, 58 
yarn per cut. Rule to 

find weight of, 53 
yarn, Rule to find hanks 

of, 70 
yarn. Rule to find weight 

of, 70 
yarn. Travelers for, 193 
yarn. Weight of, 60 
yarns. Average breaking 
weight of American cot- 
ton, 34 
Warper, 230 
Warping, Beam, 230 
Warps, Fancy, 46 
Waste, Card, 136 

Comber, 173 
Weave, Ground, 325 
Plain, 302 
Repeat of, 303 
Representation of, 303 
Weaves, Basket, 319 
Bedford cord, 332 
Check, m 
Combination, 322 
Corkscrew, 321 
Diamond, 316 
Equally-flush, 310 
Filling-corkscrew, 321 
Filling-flush, 310 
Filling-rib, Z2l 
Filling-spot, 324 
Honeycomb, 322 



INDEX 



Weaves, Pique, 328 
Rib, 320 
Satin and miscellaneous, 

317 
Spot, 324 
Stripe, 322 
Twilled, 309 
Warp-corkscrew, 321 
Warp-flush, 310 
Warp-rib, 320 
Warp-spot, 324 
Weaving, Cotton, 245 
Weight and horsepower of 

cards, 136 
Apothecaries', 335 
Avoirdupois, 334 
of cloth, 56 

of cloth, Rule to find, 56 
of cloth, Rule to find 

counts of filling to pre- 
serve, 67 
of cotton cloth, 48 
of cotton duck, 49 
of cut, 60 

of filling, Rule to find, 56 
of filling yarn, Rule to 

find, 70 
of laps, 119 
of single yarns in ply 

yarn, Rule to find, 39, 

40 _ 
of sizing materials, 243 
of sliver. Rule to find, 91 
of warp yarn, 60 
of warp yarn per cut. 

Rule to find, 53 
of warp yarn, Rule to 

find, 70 
of woolen cloth, 49 
of worsted cloth, 49 
of yarn on a beam. Rule 

to find, 44 
of yarn. Rule to find, 

when length and counts 

are known, 2 
supported by lever. Rule 

to find, 367 
Troy, 335 
Weighting of single-boss 

common rolls, 149 
of single-boss metallic 

rolls, 149 



Weighting of top rolls, 147 
Weights and measures, 334 
of cotton card slivers, 137 
Wet twisters, 219 
Whitin high-speed comber. 
Setting and timing, 169 
Width at reed, 54 
in reed, 60 

of belt. Rule to find re- 
quired, 357 
of cloth, 57 

of warp in reed, Rule to 
find, 55 
Winding faller, 208 
Wire, Diameters of Eng- 
lish and American 
standard, 127 
Needle-ground, 127 
Plow-ground, 127 
Side-ground, 127 
Top-ground, 127 
Woolen cloth. Weight of, 
49 
yarns, Amsterdam sys- 
tem of numbering, 25 
yarns, Cohoes system of 

numbering, -25 
yarns, Cut system of 

numbering, 24 
yarns. Little Falls sys- 
tem of numbering, 25 
yarns, New Hampshire 
system of numbering, 
25 
yarns, Run system of 
numbering, 24 
World's production of cot- 
ton, 101 
Worm-gear, Rule to find 

speed of, 364 
Worms and worm-gears, 

364 
Worsted cloth. Weight of, 

49 
Wrap reel, 4 



Yards per pound of cloth, 
Rule to find, 56, 57 
per pound of raw-silk 
yarns. Rule to find, 21 



INDEX 



Yards per pound of thrown- 
silk yarns. Rule to find, 
22 

per pound, Rule to find 
counts of filling to pre- 
serve, 61 
Yarn, 2 

and roving, Sizing, 2 

and roving. Table of 
dividends for number- 
ing cotton, 16 

being spun. Rule to find 
average number of, 205 

Breaking weight of cot- 
ton warp, 33 

calculations, 1 

Calculations for filling, 54 

Calculations for warp, 52 

Counts' of warp, 58 

Filling, 46 

Methods of finding counts 
of cotton, 16 

numbering, ■ Metric sys- 
tem of, 25 

-numbering systems, 24 

on a beam, Rule to find 
counts of, 43 

on a beam, Rule to find 
weight of, 44 

tester, 33 

Warp. 46 

Weight of warp, 60 
Yarns, Amsterdam system 
of numbering woolen, 25 

Average breaking weight 
of American cotton 
warp, 34 

Beamed, 42 

Cabled, 219 

Cohoes system of num- 
bering woolen, 25 

composed of more than 
two threads. Ply, 37 

Cost of ply, 40 

Cut system of number- 
ing woolen, 24 

Denier system of num- 
bering silk, 17 

Dram system of number- 
ing silk, 21 

Little Falls system of 
numbering woolen, 25 



Yarns, New Hampshire sys- 
tem of numbering 

woolen, 25 
Numbering ply, 35 
of different counts. 

Folded, 37 
of different counts, Ply, 

37 
of different materials. 

Ply, 41 
of the same counts. 

Folded, 35 
of the same counts. Ply, 

35 
Ply, 35 
Rule to find denier of 

raw-silk, 21 
Rule to find, dramage of 

thrown-silk, 22 
Rule to find standard 

breaking weight of 

carded warp, 34 
Rule to find standard 

breaking weight of 

combed warp, 35 
Rule to find weight of 

raw-silk, 21 
Rule to find weight of 

thrown-silk, 22 
Rule to find yards per 

pound of raw-silk, 21 
Rule to find yards per 

pound of thrown-silk, 22 
Run system of number- 
ing woolen, 24 
Schappe silk, 23 
Silk, 17 
Single, 1 

Sizing raw-silk, 17 
Spun-silk, 17 
Standard lengths of, 24 
System of numbering 

hemp, 25 
System of numbering 

jute, 25 
System of numbering 

linen, 24 
System of numbering 

raw-silk. 17 
Thrown-silk, l7 
Twist in, 28 



The 

Cotton Textile Worker's 
Handbook 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



SINGLE YARNS 

The word counts, when used in connection with yam, refers 
to the number, or size, of a yam as determined by the relation 
that exists between the length and the weight of a given quan- 
tity of that yarn. Thus, in the almost universally-adopted 
system of numbering cotton yam, the counts of any given yam 
are determined by the number of times that a standard length 
of 840 yd., known as a hank, is contained in the number of yards 
of that yarn required to weigh 1 lb. The length of the hank, 
840 yd., is always constant; for instance, a cotton yarn may be 
of fine, medium, or coarse counts, but a hank of that yarn 
always contains 840 yd. 

The method of numbering is that of calling a yam that con- 
tains 1 hank, or 840 yd., in 1 lb. a No. 1 yarn. If the yarn 
contains 2 hanks, or 1,680 yd., in 1 lb., it is known as a No. 2 
yarn; if it contains 3 hanks, or 2,520 yd., in 1 lb., it is known as 
a, No. 3 yarn. Thus the number of hanks that it takes to weigh 
1 lb. determines the counts of the yam. 

The counts of a yam are generally indicated by placing a 
letter 5 after the figure representing the number of the yam. 
Thus, 26s shows the counts of a yam and indicates that the 
yam contains 26 hanks (26X840 yd.) in 1 lb. 

Rule. — To find the counts of a yarn when the length and weight 
are given, divide the total length of yarn, expressed in yards, 
by the. weight, expressed in pounds, times the standard length. 



2 YARN CALCULATIONS 

Example. — If 168,000 yd. of yam weighs 5 lb., what are 

the counts? 

Solution. — 

168,000 (length of yarn, in yards) 
= 40s, counts 

5 (weight, in pounds) X 840 (standard) 

Rule. — To find the weight of yarn when the length and counts 
are known, divide the length, in yards, by the counts times the 
standard length. 

Example. — ^What is the weight of 42,000 yd. of liumber 5s 

yam? 

42,000 (length, in yards) 

Solution. = 10 lb. 

(5 counts) X 840 (standard) 

Rule. — To find the length of yarn when the weight and counts 
are known, multiply the weight, in pounds, counts, and standard 
length together. 

Example. — What is the length of yam contained in a bundle 
that weighs 8 lb., the counts of the yam being 26s? 

Solution. — 8 (weight, in lb.) X 26 (counts) X 840 (standard) 
= 174,720 yd. 

In yarn calculations it is frequently of advantage to sub- 
divide the standard length of the hank, 840 yd., and the stand- 
ard weight of 1 lb. Hence, two tables are used, as follows: 

Table of Length 
1§ yards (yd.) = 1 thread, or circtimference of wrap reel 
120 yards = 80 threads = 1 skein, or lea 

840 yards = 560 threads = 7 skeins, or leas = 1 hank 

Table of Weight 
27.34 grains (gr.) = 1 dram (dr.) 
437.5 grains = 16 drams = 1 ounce (oz.) 

7,000 grains = 256 drams = 16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) 

SIZING YARN AND ROVING 

A. yarn is a thread composed of fibers uniformly disposed 
throughout its structure and having a certain amount of twist 
for the purpose of enhancing its strength. Roving, however, 
although its size is determined in a similar manner to that of 
yam, is a term used to designate a loosely-twisted strand of 



YARN CALCULATIONS 3 

fibers, the latter lying more or less parallel with each other, 
in which form the cotton is placed at various processes previous 
to the actual spinning of the yam. In order that the yam and 
roving may be kept of the correct size, it is generally the custom 
to weigh a certain length of the product of each machine, at 
least once a day, and by this means ascertain whether the 
roving or yam is being kept at the required weight. This 
process is known as sizing, and is a matter that should always 
be carefully attended to. 

From the rules and explanations previously given it will be 
plain that if 840 yd. (1 hank) were always the length weighed, 
in order to learn the counts of the yam, it would simply be 




Fig. 1 



necessary to divide the weight, expressed in pounds, into 1 lb., 
or if expressed in grains, into 7,000 (the number of grains in 
1 lb.). It will readily be seen that to measure ofi 840 yd. of 
yam would not only require considerable time, but would also 
produce an unnecessary waste of material. To overcome 
these difficulties, when sizing yam, it is customary to measure 
off one skein (120 yd.) or one-seventh of 840 yd.; to weigh this 
amount; and divide its weight in grains into one-seventh of 
7,000, or 1,000. The result obtained in this manner will be the 
same as if 840 yd. were taken and the weight, in grains, divided 
Into 7,000. 



4J 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



When sizing yarns, a wrap reel is used to measure the yarn. 
As its name indicates, this instrument consists of a reel, gen- 
erally 1| yd. in circumference. The yam is wound on this reel 
and a finger indicates on a disk the number of yards reeled. 
Fig. 1 shows an ordinary type of wrap reel, and Fig. 2 shows 
yam and roving scales. These scales are suitable for weighing 
by tenths of grains. 

Example. — 120 yd. of yam is reeled and found to weigh 
40 gr.; vihat are the counts? 

Solution. — 1,000 ^40= 25s 




Fig. 2 

The size of cotton roving is determined in a similar manner 
and indicated on the same basis as is the size of cotton yarn, 
although, when sizing roving, a shorter length is used. It is 
customary in this case to measure off one-seventieth of 840 yd., 
or 12 yd., and divide the weight, in grains, of this length of 
roving into one-seventieth of 7,000, or 100. 

Ex.'^MPLE.- — 12 yd. of roving is found to weigh 20 gr.; what 
are the counts? 

Solution. — 100 -=- 20 = 5-hank roving 

To avoid calculation when sizing yarns, a table showing the 
weight by grains and tenths of grains of 120 yd., or 1 skein, of 
yam is ordinarily employed. The accompanying cotton-yam 
numbering table is a well-arranged and complete table for this 
purpose. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
COTTON-YARN NUMBERING TABLE 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 
of 

Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt, 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


5 


200.0 


9.1 


109.9 


13.2 


75.8 


17.3 


57.80 


5.1 


196.1 


9.2 


108.7 


13.3 


75.2 


17.4 


57.47 


5.2 


192.3 


9.3 


107.5 


13.4 


74.6 


17.5 


57.14 


5.3 


188.7 


9.4 


106.4 


13.5 


74.1 


17.6 


56.82 


5.4 


185.2 


9.5 


105.3 


13.6 


73.5 


17.7 


56..50 


5.5 


181.8 


9.6 


104.2 


13.7 


73.0 


17.8 


56.18 


^ 5.6 


178.6 


9.7 


103.1 


13.8 


72.5 


17.9 


55.87 


■ 5.7 


175.4 


9.8 


102.0 


13.9 


71.9 


18 


55.56 


5.8 


172.4 


9.9 


101.0 


14 


71.4 


18.1 


55.25 


5.9 


169.5 


10 


100.0 


14.1 


70.9 


18.2 


54.95 


6 


166.7 


10.1 


99.0 


14.2 


70.4 


18.3 


54.64 


6.1 


164.0 


10.2 


98.0 


14.3 


69.9 


18.4 


54.35 


6.2 


161.3 


10.3 


97.1 


14.4 


69.4 


18.5 


54.05 


6.3 


158.7 


10.4 


96.1 


14.5 


69.0 


18.6 


53.76 


6.4 


156.2 


10.5 


95.2 


14.6 


68.5 


18.7 


53.48 


6.5 


153.8 


10.6 


94.3 


14.7 


68.0 


18.8 


53.19 


6.6 


151.5 


10.7 


93.5 


14.8 


67.6 


18.9 


52.91 


6.7 


149.3 


10.8 


92.6 


14.9 


67.1 


19 


52.63 


6.8 


147.1 


10.9 


91.7 


15 


66.67 


19.1 


52.36 


6.9 


144.9 


11 


90.9 


15.1 


66.23 


19.2 


52.08 


. 7 


142.9 


11.1 


90.1 


15.2 


65.79 


19.3 


51.81 


7.1 


140.8 


11.2 


89.3 


15.3 


65.36 


19.4 


51.55 


■' 7.2 


138.9 


11.3 


88.5 


15.4 


64.94 


19.5 


51.28 


7.3 


137.0 


11.4 


87.7 


15.5 


64.52 


19.6 


51.02 


7.4 


135.1 


11.5 


87.0 


15.6 


64.10 


19.7 


50.76 


7.5 


133.3 


11.6 


86.2 


15.7 


63.69 


19.8 


50.51 


7.6 


131.6 


11.7 


85.5 


15.8 


63.29 


19.9 


50.25 


7.7 


129.9 


11.8 


84.7 


15.9 


62.89 


20 


50.00 


7.8 


128.2 


11.9 


84.0 


16 


62.50 


20.1 


49.75 


7.9 


126.6 


12 


83.3 


16.1 


62.11 


20.2 


49.50 


8 


125 


12.1 


82.6 


16.2 


61.73 


20.3 


49.26 


8.1 


123.5 


12.2 


82.0 


16.3 


61.35 


20.4 


49.02 


8.2 


122 


12.3 


81.3 


16.4 


60.98 


20.5 


48.78 


. 8.3 


120.5 


12.4 


80.6 


16.5 


60.61 


20.6 


48.54 


8.4 


119.0 


12.5 


80.0 


16.6 


60.24 


20.7 


48.31 


8.5 


117.6 


12.6 


79.4 


16.7 


59.88 


20.8 


48.08 


8.6 


116.3 


12.7 


78.7 


16.8 


59.52 


20.9 


47.85 


8.7 


114.9 


12.8 


78.1 


16.9 


59.17 


21 


47.62 


8.8 


113.6 


12.9 


77.5 


17 


58.82 


21.1 


47.39 


8.9 


112.4 


13 


76.9 


17.1 


58.48 


21.2 


47.17 


9 


111.1 


13.1 


76.3 


17.2 


58.14 


21.3 


46.95 



YARN CALCULATIONS 

Table — (Continued) 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


21.4 


46.73 


25.5 


39.22 


29.6 


33.78 


33.7 


29.67 


. 21.5 


46.51 


25.6 


39.06 


29.7 


33.67 


33.8 


29.59 


21.6 


46.30 


25.7 


38.91 


29.8 


33.56 


33.9 


29.50 


21.7 


46.08 


25.8 


38.76 


29.9 


33.44 


34 


29.41 


21.8 


45.87 


25.9 


38.61 


30 


33.33 


34.1 


29.33 


21.9 


45.66 


26 


38.46 


30.1 


33.22 


34.2 


29.24 


22 


45.45 


26.1 


38.31 


30.2 


33.11 


34.3 


29.15 


22.1 


45.25 


26.2 


38.17 


30.3 


33.00 


34.4 


29.07 


22.2 


45.05 


26.3 


38.02 


30.4 


32.89 


34.5 


28.99 


22.3 


44.84 


26.4 


37.88 


30.5 


32.79 


34.6 


28.90 


22.4 


44.64 


26.5 


37.74 


30.6 


32.68 


34.7 


28.82 


22.5 


44.44 


26.6 


37.59 


30.7 


32.57 


34.8 


28.74 


22.6 


44.25 


26.7 


37.45 


30.8 


32.47 


34.9 


28.65 


22.7 


44.05 


26.8 


37.31 


30.9 


32.36 


35 


28.57 


22.8 


43.86 


26.9 


37.17 


31 


32.26 


35.1 


28.49 


22.9 


43.67 


27 


37.04 


31.1 


32.15 


35.2 


28.41 


23 


43.48 


27.1 


36.90 


31.2 


32.05 


35.3 


28.33 


23.1 


43.29 


27.2 


36.76 


31.3 


31.95 


35.4 


28.25 


23.2 


43.10 


27.3 


36.63 


31.4 


31.85 


35.5 


28.17 


23.3 


42.92 


27.4 


36.50 


31.5 


31.75 


35.6 


28.09 


23.4 


42.74 


27.5 


36.36 


31.6 


31.65 


35.7 


28.01 


23.5 


42.55 


27.6 


36.23 


31.7 


31.55 


35.8 


27.93 


23.6 


42.37 


27.7 


36.10 


31.8 


31.45 


35.9 


27.86 


23.7 


42.19 


27.8 


35.97 


31.9 


31.35 


36 


27.78 


23.8 


42.02 


27.9 


35.84 


32 


31.25 


36.1 


27.70 


23.9 


41.84 


28 


35.71 


32.1 


31.15 


36.2 


27.62 


24 


41.67 


28.1 


35.59 


32.2 


31.06 


36.3 


27.55 


24.1 


41.49 


28.2 


35.46 


32.3 


30.96 


36.4 


27.47 


24.2 


41.32 


28.3 


35.34 


32.4 


30.86 


36.5 


27.40 


24.3 


41.15 


28.4 


35.21 


32.5 


30.77 


36.6 


27.32 


24.4 


40.98 


28.5 


35.09 


32.6 


30.67 


36.7 


27.25 


24.5 


40.82 


28.6 


34.97 


32.7 


30.58 


36.8 


27.17 


24.6 


40.65 


28.7 


34.84 


32.8 


30.49 


36.9 


27.10 


24.7 


40.49 


28.8 


34.72 


32.9 


30.40 


37 


27.03 


24.8 


40.32 


28.9 


34.60 


33 


30.30 


37.1 


26.95 


24.9 


40.16 


29 


34.48 


33.1 


30.21 


37.2 


26.88 


25 


40.00 


29.1 


34.36 


33.2 


30.12 


37.3 


26.81 


25.1 


39.84 


29.2 


34.25 


33.3 


30.03 


37.4 


26.74 


25.2 


39.68 


29.3 


34.13 


33.4 


29.94 


37.5 


26.67 


25.3 


39.53 


29.4 


34.01 


33.5 


29.85 


37.6 


26.60 


25.4 


39.37 


29.5 


33.90 


33.6 


29.76 


37.7 


26.53 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


37.8 


26.46 


41.9 


23.87 


46 


21.74 


50.1 


19.96 


37.9 


26.39 


42 


23.81 


46.1 


21.69 


50.2 


19.92 


38 


26.32 


42.1 


23.75 


46.2 


21.65 


50.3 


19.88 


38.1 


26.25 


42.2 


23.70 


46.3 


21.60 


50.4 


19.84 


38.2 


26.18 


42.3 


23.64 


46.4 


21.55 


50.5 


19.80 


38.3 


26.11 


42.4 


23.58 


46.5 


21.51 


50.6 


19.76 


38.4 


26.04 


42.5 


23.53 


46.6 


21.46 


50.7 


19.72 


38.5 


25.97 


42.6 


23.47 


46.7 


21.41 


50.8 


19.69 


38.6 


25.91 


42.7 


23.42 


46.8 


21.37 


50.9 


19.65 


38.7 


25.84 


42.8 


23.36 


46.9 


21.32 


51 


19.61 


38.8 


25.77 


42.9 


23.31 


47 


21.28 


51.1 


19.57 


38.9 


25.71 


43 


23.26 


47.1 


21.23 


51.2 


19.53 


39 


25.64 


43.1 


23.20 


47.2 


21.19 


51.3 


19.49 


39.1 


25.58 


43.2 


23.15 


47.3 


21.14 


51.4 


19.46 


39.2 


25.51 


43.3 


23.09 


47.4 


21.10 


51.5 


19.42 


39.3 


25.45 


43.4 


23.04 


47.5 


21.05 


51.6 


19.38 


39.4 


25.38 


43.5 


22.99 


47.6 


21.01 


51.7 


19.34 


39.5 


25.32 


43.6 


22.94 


47.7 


20.96 


51.8 


19.31 


39.6 


25.25 


43.7 


22.88 


47.8 


20.92 


51.9 


19.27 


39.7 


25.19 


43.8 


22.83 


47.9 


20.88 


52 


19.23 


39.8 


25.13 


43.9 


22.78 


48 


20.83 


52.1 


19.19 


39.9 


25.06 


44 


22.73 


48.1 


20.79 


52.2 


19.16. 


40 


25.00 


44.1 


22.68 


48.2 


20.75 


52.3 


19.12 


40.1 


24.94 


44.2 


22.62 


48.3 


20.70 


52.4 


19.08 


40.2 


24.88 


44.3 


22.57 


48.4 


20.66 


52.5 


19.05 


40.3 


24.81 


44.4 


22.52 


48.5 


20.62 


52.6 


19.01 


40.4 


24.75 


44.5 


22.47 


48.6 


20.58 


52.7 


18.98 


40.5 


24.69 


44.6 


22.42 


48.7 


20.53 


52.8 


18.94 


40.6 


24.63 


44.7 


22.37 


48.8 


20.49 


52.9 


18.90 


40.7 


24.57 


44.8 


22.32 


48.9 


20.45 


53 


18.87 


40.8 


24.51 


44.9 


22.27 


49 


20.41 


53.1 


18.83 


40.9 


24.45 


45 


22.22 


49.1 


20.37 


53.2 


18.80 


41 


24.39 


45.1 


22.17 


49.2 


20.33 


53.3 


18.76 


41.1 


24.33 


45.2 


22.12 


49.3 


20.28 


53.4 


18.73 


41.2 


24.27 


45.3 


22.08 


49.4 


20.24 


53.5 


18.69 


41.3 


24.21 


45.4 


22.03 


49.5 


20.20 


53.6 


18.66 


41.4 


24.15 


45.5 


21.98 


49.6 


20.16 


53.7 


18.62 


41.5 


24.10 


45.6 


21.93 


49.7 


20.12 


53.8 


18.59 


41.6 


24.04 


45.7 


21.88 


49.8 


20.08 


53.9 


18.55 


41.7 


23.98 


45.8 


21.83 


49.9 


20.04 


54 


18.52 


41.8 


23.92 


45.9 


21.79 


50 


20.00 


54.1 


18.48 



YARN CALCULATIONS 

Table — (Continued) 



Wt. 
in Gr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


54.2 


18.45 


58.3 


17.15 


62.4 


16.03 


66.5 


15.04 


54.3 


18.42 


58.4 


17.12 


62.5 


16.00 


66.6 


15.02 


54.4 


18.38 


58.5 


17.09 


62.6 


15.97 


66.7 


14.99 


54.5 


18.35 


58.6 


17.06 


62.7 


15.95 


66.8 


14.97 


54.6 


18.32 


58.7 


17.04 


62.8 


15.92 


66.9 


14.95 


54.7 


18.28 


58.8 


17.01 


62.9 


15.90 


67 


14.93 


54.8 


18.25 


58.9 


16.98 


63 


15.87 


67.1 


14.90 


54.9 


18.21 


59 


16.95 


63.1 


15.85 


67.2 


14.88 


55 


18.18 


59.1 


16.92 


63.2 


15.82 


67.3 


14.86 


55.1 


18.15 


59.2 


16.89 


63.3 


15.80 


67.4 


14.84 


55.2 


18.12 


59.3 


16.86 


63.4 


15.77 


67.5 


14.81 


55.3 


18.08 


59.4 


16.84 


63.5 


15.75 


67.6 


14.79 


55.4 


18.05 


59.5 


16.81 


63.6 


15.72 


67.7 


14.77 


55.5 


18.02 


59.6 


16.78 


63.7 


15.70 


67.8 


14.75 


55.6 


17.99 


59.7 


16.75 


63.8 


15.67 


67.9 


14.73 


55.7 


17.95 


59.8 


16.72 


63.9 


15.65 


68 


14.71 


55.8 


17.92 


59.9 


16.69 


64 


15.63 


68.1 


14.68 


55.9 


17.89 


60 


16.67 


64.1 


15.60 


68.2 


14.66 


56 


17.86 


60.1 


16.64 


64.2 


15.58 


68.3 


14.64 


56.1 


17.83 


60.2 


16.61 


64.3 


15.55 


68.4 


14.62 


56.2 


17.79 


60.3 


16.58 


64.4 


15.53 


68.5 


14.60 


56.3 


17.76 


60.4 


16.56 


64.5 


15.50 


68.6 


14.58 


56.4 


17.73 


60.5 


16.53 


64.6 


15.48 


68.7 


14.56 


56.5 


17.70 


60.6 


16.50 


64.7 


15.46 


68.8 


14.53 


56.6 


17.67 


60.7 


16.47 


64.8 


15.43 


68.9 


14.51 


56.7 


17.64 


60.8 


16.45 


64.9 


15.41 


69 


14.49 


56.8 


17.61 


60.9 


16.42 


65 


15.38 


69.1 


14.47 


56.9 


17.57 


61 


16.39 


65.1 


15.36 


69.2 


14.45 


57 


17.54 


61.1 


16.37 


65.2 


15.34 


69.3 


14.43 


57.1 


17.51 


61.2 


16.34 


65.3 


15.31 


69.4 


14.41 


57.2 


17.48 


61.3 


16.31 


65.4 


15.29 


69.5 


14.39 


57.3 


17.45 


61.4 


16.29 


65.5 


15.27 


69.6 


14.37 


57.4 


17.42 


61.5 


16.26 


65.6 


15.24 


69.7 


14.35 


57.5 


17.39 


61.6 


16.23 


65.7 


15.22 


69.8 


14.33 


57.6 


17.36 


61.7 


16.21 


65.8 


15.20 


69.9 


14.31 


57.7 


17.33 


61.8 


16.18 


65.9 


15.17 


70 


14.29 


57.8 


17.30 


61.9 


16.16 


66 


15.15 


70.1 


14.27 


57.9 


17.27 


62 


16.13 


66.1 


15.13 


70.2 


14.25 


58 


17.24 


62.1 


16.10 


66.2 


15.11 


70.3 


14.22 


58.1 


17.21 


62.2 


16.08 


66.3 


15.08 


70.4 


14.20 


58.2 


17.18 


62.3 


16.05 


66.4 


15.06 


70.5 


14.18 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
in Gr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


70.6 


14.16 


74.7 


13.39 


78.8 


12.69 


82.9 


12.06 


70.7 


14.14 


74.8 


13.37 


78.9 


12.67 


83 


12.05 


70.8 


14.12 


74.9 


13.35 


79 


12.66 


83.1 


12.03 


70.9 


14.10 


75 


13.33 


79.1 


12.64 


83.2 


12.02 


71 


14.08 


75.1 


13.32 


79.2 


12.63 


83.3 


12.00 


71.1 


14.06 


75.2 


13.30 


79.3 


12.61 


83.4 


11.99 


71.2 


14.04 


75.3 


13.28 


79.4 


12.59 


83.5 


11.98 


71.3 


14.03 


75.4 


13.26 


79.5 


12.58 


83.6 


11.96 


71.4 


14.01 


75.5 


13.25 


79.6 


12.56 


83.7 


11.95 


71.5 


13.99 


75.6 


13.23 


79.7 


12.55 


83.8 


11.93 


71.6 


13.97 


75.7 


13.21 


79.8 


12.53 


83.9 


11.92 


71.7 


13.95 


75.8 


13.19 


79.9 


12.52 


84 


11.90 


71.8 


13.93 


75.9 


13.18 


80 


12.50 


84.1 


11.89 


71.9 


13.91 


76 


13.16 


80.1 


12.48 


84.2 


11.88 


72 


13.89 


76.1 


13.14 


80.2 


12.47 


84.3 


11.86 


72.1 


13.87 


76.2 


13.12 


80.3 


12.45 


84.4 


11.85 


72.2 


13.85 


76.3 


13.11 


80.4 


12.44 


84.5 


11.83 


72.3 


13.83 


76.4 


13.09 


80.5 


12.42 


84.6 


11.82 


72.4 


13.81 


76.5 


13.07 


80.6 


12.41 


84.7 


11.81 


72.5 


13.79 


76.6 


13.05 


80.7 


12.39 


84.8 


11.79 


72.6 


13.77 


76.7 


13.04 


80.8 


12.38 


84.9 


11.78 


72.7 


13.76 


76.8 


13.02 


80.9 


12.36 


85 


11.76 


72.8 


13.74 


76.9 


13.00 


81 


12.35 


85.1 


11.75 


72.9 


13.72 


77 


12.99 


81.1 


12.33 


85.2 


11.74 


73 


13.70 


77.1 


12.97 


81.2 


12.32 


85.3 


11.72 


73.1 


13.68 


77.2 


12.95 


81.3 


12.30 


85.4 


11.71 


73.2 


13.66 


77.3 


12.94 


81.4 


12.29 


85.5 


11.70 


73.3 


13.64 


77.4 


12.92 


81.5 


12.27 


85.6 


11.68 


73.4 


13.62 


77.5 


12.90 


81.6 


12.25 


85.7 


11.67 


73.5 


13.61 


77.6 


12.89 


81.7 


12.24 


85.8 


11.66 


73.6 


13.59 


77.7 


12.87 


81.8 


12.22 


85.9 


11.64 


73.7 


13.57 


77.8 


12.85 


81.9 


12.21 


86 


11.63 


73.8 


13.55 


77.9 


12.84 


82 


12.20 


86.1 


11.61 


73.9 


13.53 


78 


12.82 


82.1 


12.18 


86.2 


11.60 


74 


13,51 


78.1 


12.80 


82.2 


12.17 


86.3 


11.59 


74.1 


13.50 


78.2 


12.79 


82.3 


12.15 


86.4 


11.57 


74.2 


13.48 


78.3 


12.77 


82.4 


12.14 


86.5 


11.56 


74.3 


13.46 


78.4 


12.76 


82.5 


12.12 


86.6 


11.55 


74.4 


13.44 


78.5 


12.74 


82.6 


12.11 


86.7 


11.53 


74.5 


13.42 


78.6 


12.72 


82.7 


12.09 


86.8 


11.52 


74.6 


13.40 


78.7 


12.71 


82.8 


12.08 


86.9 


11.51 



10 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


87 


11.49 


91.1 


10.98 


95.2 


10.50 


99.3 


10.07 


87.1 


11.48 


91.2 


10.96 


95.3 


10.49 


99.4 


10.06 


87.2 


11.47 


91.3 


10.95 


95.4 


10.48 


99.5 


10.05 


87.3 


11.45 


91.4 


10.94 


95.5 


10.47 


99.6 


10.04 


87.4 


11.44 


91.5 


10.93 


95.6 


10.46 


99.7 


10.03 


87.5 


11.43 


91.6 


10.92 


95.7 


10.45 


99.8 


10.02 


87.6 


11.42 


91.7 


10.91 


95.8 


10.44 


99.9 


10.01 


87.7 


11.40 


91.8 


10.89 


95.9 


10.43 


100 


10.00 


87.8 


11.39 


91.9 


10.88 


96 


10.42 


100.2 


9.98 


87.9 


11.38 


92 


10.87 


96.1 


10.41 


100.4 


9.96 


88 


11.36 


92.1 


10.86 


96.2 


10.40 


100.6 


9.94 


88.1 


11.35 


92.2 


10.85 


96.3 


10.38 


100.8 


9.92 


88.2 


11.34 


92.3 


10.83 


96.4 


10.37 


101 


9.90 


88.3 


11.33 


92.4 


10.82 


96.5 


10.36 


101.2 


9.88 


88.4 


11.31 


92.5 


10.81 


96.6 


10.35 


101.4 


9.86 


88.5 


11.30 


92.6 


10.80 


96.7 


10.34 


101.6 


9.84 


88.6 


11.29 


92.7 


10.79 


96.8 


10.33 


101.8 


9.82 


88.7 


11.27 


92.8 


10.78 


96.9 


10.32 


102 


9.80 


88.8 


11.26 


92.9 


10.76 


97 


10.31 


102.2 


9.78 


88.9 


11.25 


93 


10.75 


97.1 


10.30 


102.4 


9.77 


89 


11.24 


93.1 


10.74 


97.2 


10.29 


102.6 


9.75 


89.1 


11.22 


93.2 


10.73 


97.3 


10.28 


102.8 


9.73 


89.2 


11.21 


93.3 


10.72 


97.4 


10.27 


103 


9.71 


89.3 


11.20 


93.4 


10.71 


97.5 


10.26 


103.2 


9.69 


89.4 


11.19 


93.5 


10.70 


97.6 


10.25 


103.4 


9.67 


89.5 


11.17 


93.6 


10.68 


97.7 


10.24 


103.6 


9.65 


89.6 


11.16 


93.7 


10.67 


97.8 


10.22 


103.8 


9.63 


89.7 


11.15 


93.8 


10.66 


97.9 


10.21 


104 


9.62 


89.8 


11.14 


93.9 


10.65 


98 


10.20 


104.2 


9.60 


89.9 


11.12 


94 


10.64 


98.1 


10.19 


104.4 


9.58 


90 


11.11 


94.1 


10.63 


98.2 


10.18 


104.6 


9.56 


90.1 


11.10 


94.2 


10.62 


89.3 


10.17 


104.8 


9.54 


90.2 


11.09 


94.3 


10.60 


98.4 


10.16 


105 


9.52 


90.3 


11.07 


94.4 


10.59 


98.5 


10.15 


105.2 


9.51 


90.4 


11.06 


94.5 


10.58 


98.6 


10.14 


105.4 


9.49 


90.5 


11.05 


94.6 


10.57 


98.7 


10.13 


105.6 


9.47 


90.6 


11.04 


94.7 


10.56 


98.8 


10.12 


105.8 


9.45 


90.7 


11.03 


94.8 


10.55 


98.9 


10.11 


106 


9.43 


90.8 


11.01 


94.9 


10.54 


99 


10.10 


106.2 


9.42 


90.9 


11.00 


95 


10.53 


99.1 


10.09 


106.4 


9.40 


91 


10.99 


95.1 


10.52 


99.2 


10.08 


106.6 


9.38 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 



n 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yam 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


of 120 

Yd. 


106.8 


9.36 


115 


8.70 


128 


7.81 


148.5 


6.73 


107 


9.35 


115.2 


8.68 


128.5 


7.78 


149 


6.71 


107.2 


9.33 


115.4 


8.67 


129 


7.75 


149.5 


6.69 


107.4 


9.31 


115.6 


8.65 


129.5 


7.72 


150 


6.67 


107.6 


9.29 


115.8 


8.64 


130 


7.69 


151 


6.62 


107.8 


9.28 


116 


8.62 


130.5 


7.66 


152 


6.58 


J 08 


9.26 


116.2 


8.61 


131 


7.63 


153 


6.54 


108.2 


9.24 


116.4 


8.59 


131.5 


7.60 


154 


6.49 


108.4 


9.23 


116.6 


8.58 


132 


7.58 


155 


6.45 


108.6 


9.21 


116.8 


8.56 


132.5 


7.55 


156 


6.41 


108.8 


9.19 


117 


8.55 


133 


7.52 


157 


6.37 


109 


9.17 


117.2 


8.53 


133.5 


7.49 


158 


6.33 


109.2 


9.16 


117.4 


8.52 


134 


7.46 


159 


6.29 


109.4 


9.14 


117.6 


8.50 


134.5 


7.43 


160 


6.25 


109.6 


9.12 


117.8 


8.49 


135 


7.41 


161 


6.21 


109.8 


9.11 


118 


8.47 


135.5 


7.38 


162 


6.17 


110 


9.09 


118.2 


8.46 


136 


7.35 


163 


6.13 


110.2 


9.07 


118.4 


8.45 


136.5 


7.33 


164 


6.10 


110.4 


9.06 


118.6 


8.43 


137 


7 30 


165 


6.06 


110.6 


9.04 


118.8 


8.42 


137.5 


7 27 


166 


6.02 


110.8 


9.03 


119 


8.40 


138 


7.25 


167 


5.99 


111 


9.01 


119.2 


8.39 


138.5 


7.22 


168 


5.95 


111.2 


8.99 


119.4 


8.38 


139 


7.19 


169 


5.92 


111.4 


8.98 


119.6 


8.36 


139.5 


7.17 


170 


5.88 


111.6 


8.96 


119.8 


8.35 


140 


7.14 


171 


5.85 


111.8 


8.94 


120 


8.33 


140.5 


7.12 


172 


5.81 


112 


8.93 


120.5 


8.30 


141 


7.09 


173 


5.78 


112.2 


8.91 


121 


8.26 


141.5 


7.07 


174 


5.75 


112.4 


8.90 


121.5 


8.23 


142 


7.04 


175 


5.71 


112.6 


8.88 


122 


8.20 


142.5 


7.02 


176 


5.68 


112.8 


8.87 


122.5 


8.16 


143 


6.99 


177 , 


5.65 


113 


8.85 


123 


8.13 


143.5 


6.97 


178 


5.62 


113.2 


8.83 


123.5 


8.10 


144 


6.94 


179 


5.59 


113.4 


8.82 


124 


8.06 


144.5 


6.92 


180 


5.56 


113.6 


8.80 


124.5 


8.03 


145 


6.90 


181 


5.52 


113.8 


8.79 


125 


8.00 


145.5 


6.87 


182 


5.49 


114 


8.77 


125.5 


7.97 


146 


6.85 


183 


5.46 


114.2 


8.76 


126 


7.94 


146.5 


6.83 


184 


5.43 


114.4 


8.74 


126.5 


7.91 


147 


6.80 


185 


5.41 


114.6 


8.73 


127 


7.87 


147.5 


6.78 


186 


5.38 


114.8 


8.71 


127.5 


7.84 


148 


6.76 


187 


5.35 



12 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Tabi-e — (Continued) 



Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


Wt. 
inGr. 


C'nts 

of 
Yarn 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd. 


of 120 
Yd, 


of 120 
Yd, 


188 


5.32 


238 


4.20 


300 


3.33 


455 


2,20 


189 


5.29 


240 


4.17 


305 


3.28 


460 


2,17 


190 


5.26 


242 


4.13 


310 


3.23 


465 


2.15 


191 


5.24 


244 


4.10 


315 


3.17 


470 


2,13 


192 


5.21 


246 


4.07 


320 


3.13 


475 


2,11 


193 


5.18 


248 


4.03 


325 


3.08 


480 


2,08 


194 


5.15 


250 


4.00 


330 


3.03 


485 


2.06 


195 


5.13 


252 


3.97 


335 


2.99 


490 


2.04 


196 


5.10 


254 


3.94 


340 


2.94 


495 


2.02 


197 


5.08 


256 


3.91 


345 


2.90 


500 


2.00 


198 


5.05 


258 


3.88 


350 


2.86 


510 


1.96 


199 


5.03 


260 


3.85 


355 


2.82 


520 


1.92 


200 


5.00 


262 


3.82 


360 


2.78 


530 


1.89 


202 


4.95 


264 


3.79 


365 


2.74 


540 


1.85 


204 


4.90 


266 


3.76 


370 


2.70 


550 


1.82 


206 


4.85 


268 


3.73 


375 


2.67 


560 


1.79 


208 


4.81 


270 


3.70 


380 


2.63 


570 


1,75 


210 


4.76 


272 


3.68 


385 


2.60 


580 


1,72 


212 


4.72 


274 


3.65 


390 


2.56 


590 


1,69 


214 


4.67 


276 


3.62 


395 


2.53 


600 


1,67 


216 


4.63 


278 


3.60 


400 


2.50 


620 


1,61 


218 


4.59 


280 


3.57 


405 


2.47 


640 


1,56 


220 


4.55 


282 


3.55 


410 


2.44 


660 


1,52 


222 


4.50 


284 


3.52 


415 


2.41 


680 


1,47 


224 


4.46 


286 


3.50 


420 


2,38 


700 


1,43 


226 


4.42 


288 


3.47 


425 


2.35 


725 


1,38 


228 


4.39 


290 


3.45 


430 


2.33 


750 


1.33 


230 


4.35 


292 


3.42 


435 


2.30 


775 


1.29 


232 


4.31 


294 


3.40 


440 


2.27 


800 


1.25 


234 


4.27 


296 


3.38 


445 


2.25 


850 


1.17 


236 


4.24 


298 


3.36 


450 


2.22 


900 


1.11 



The size of roving is indicated in a somewhat different 
manner from the counts of yam. Thus, if five times 840 yd. 
of roving weighs 1 lb. it is known as 6-hank roving, indicating 
that 5 hanks weigh 1 lb. 

The following cotton-roving numbering table gives the hank 
roving as determined by the weight in grains and tenths of 
grains of 12 yd. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
COTTON-ROVING NUMBERING TABLE 



13 



Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr, 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov, 


of 12 

Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


3 


33.33 


7.1 


14.08 


11.2 


8.93 


15.3 


6.54 


3.1 


32.26 


7.2 


13.89 


11.3 


8.85 


15.4 


6.49 


3.2 


31.25 


7.3 


13.70 


11.4 


8.77 


15.5 


6.45 


3.3 


30.30 


7.4 


13.51 


11.5 


8.70 


15.6 


6.41 


3.4 


29.41 


7.5 


13.33 


11.6 


8.62 


15.7 


6.37 


3.5 


28.57 


7.6 


13.16 


11.7 


8.55 


15.8 


6.33 


3.6 


27.78 


7.7 


12.99 


11.8 


8.47 


15.9 


6.29 


3.7 


27.03 


7.8 


12.82 


11.9 


8.40 


16 


6.25 


3.8 


26.32 


7.9 


12.66 


12 


8.33 


16.1 


6.21 


3.9 


25.64 


8 


12.50 


12.1 


8.26 


16.2 


6.17 


4 


25.00 


8.1 


12.35 


12.2 


8.20 


16.3 


6.13 


4.1 


24.39 


8.2 


12.20 


12.3 


8.13 


16.4 


6.10 


4.2 


23.81 


8.3 


12.05 


12.4 


8.06 


16.5 


6.06 


4.3 


23.26 


8.4 


11.90 


12.5 


8.00 


16.6 


6.02 


4.4 


22.73 


8.5 


11.76 


12.6 


7.94 


16.7 


5.99 


4.5 


22.22 


8.6 


11.63 


12.7 


7.87 


16.8 


5.95 


4.6 


21.74 


8.7 


11.49 


12.8 


7.81 


16.9 


5.92 


4.7 


21.28 


8.8 


11.36 


12.9 


7.75 


17 


5.88 


4.8 


20.83 


8.9 


11.24 


13 


7.69 


17.1 


5.85 


4.9 


20.41 


9 


11.11 


13.1 


7.63 


17.2 


5.81 


5 


20.00 


9.1 


10.99 


13.2 


7.58 


17.3 


5.78 


5.1 


19.61 


9.2 


10.87 


13.3 


7.52 


17.4 


5.75 


5.2 


19.23 


9.3 


10.75 


13.4 


7.46 


17.5 


5.71 


5.3 


18.87 


9.4 


10.64 


13.5 


7.41 


17.6 


5.68 


5.4 


18.52 


9.5 


10.53 


13.6 


7.35 


17.7 


5.65 


5.5 


18.18 


9.6 


10.42 


13.7 


7.30 


17.8 


5.62 


5.6 


17.86 


9.7 


10.31 


13.8 


7.25 


17.9 


5.59 


5.7 


17.54 


9.8 


10.20 


13.9 


7.19 


18 


5.56 


5.8 


17.24 


9.9 


10.10 


14 


7.14 


18.1 


5.52 


5.9 


16.95 


10 


10.00 


14.1 


7.09 


18.2 


5.49 


6 


16.67 


10.1 


9.90 


14.2 


7.04 


18.3 


5.46 


6.1 


16.39 


10.2 


9.80 


14.3 


6.99 


18.4 


5.43 


6.2 


15.13 


10.3 


9.71 


14.4 


6.94 


18.5 


5.41 


6.3 


15.87 


10.4 


9.62 


14.5 


6.90 


18.6 


5.38 


6.4 


15.63 


10.5 


9.52 


14.6 


6.85 


18.7 


5.35 


6.5 


15.38 


10.6 


9.43 


14.7 


6.80 


18.8 


5.32 


6.6 


15.15 


10.7 


9.35 


14.8 


6.76 


18.9 


5.29 


6.7 


14.93 


10.8 


9.26 


14.9 


6.71 


19 


5.26 


6.8 


14.71 


10.9 


9.17 


15 


6.67 


19.1 


5.24 


6.9 


14.49 


11 


9.09 


15.1 


6.62 


19.2 


5.21 


7 


14.29 


11.1 


9.01 


15.2 


6.58 


19.3 


5.18 



14 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Tab le — (Continued) 



Wt. 

inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


19.4 


5.15 


23.5 


4.26 


27.6 


3.62 


33.4 


2.99 


19.5 


5.13 


23.6 


4.24 


27.7 


3.61 


33.6 


2.98 


19.6 


5.10 


23.7 


4.22 


27.8 


3.60 


33.8 


2.96 


19.7 


5.08 


23.8 


4.20 


27.9 


3.58 


34 


2.94 


19.8 


5.05 


23.9 


4.18 


28 


3.57 


34.2 


2.92 


19.9 


5.03 


24 


4.17 


28.1 


3.56 


34.4 


2.91 


20 


5.00 


24.1 


4.15 


28.2 


3.55 


34.6 


2.89 


20.1 


4.98 


24.2 


4.13 


28.3 


3.53 


34.8 


2.87 


20.2 


4.95 


24.3 


4.12 


28.4 


3.52 


35 


2.86 


20.3 


4.93 


24.4 


4.10 


28.5 


3.51 


35.2 


2.84 


20.4 


4.90 


24.5 


4.08 


28.6 


3.50 


35.4 


2.82 , 


20.5 


4.88 


24.6 


4.07 


28.7 


3.48 


35.6 


2.81 


20.6 


4.85 


24.7 


4.05 


28.8 


3.47 


35.8 


2.79 


20.7 


4.83 


24.8 


4.03 


28.9 


3.46 


36 


2.78 


20.8 


4.81 


24.9 


4.02 


29 


3.45 


36.2 


2.76 


20.9 


4.78 


25 


4.00 


29.1 


3.44 


36.4 


2.75 


21 


4.76 


25.1 


3.98 


29.2 


3.42 


36.6 


2.73 


21.1 


4.74 


25.2 


3.97 


29.3 


3.41 


36.8 


2.72 


21.2 


4.72 


25.3 


3.95 


29.4 


3.40 


37 


2.70 


21.3 


4.69 


25.4 


3.94 


29.5 


3.39 


37.2 


2.69 


21.4 


4.67 


25.5 


3.92 


29.6 


3.38 


37.4 


2.67 


21.5 


4.65 


25.6 


3.91 


29.7 


3.37 


37.6 


2.66 


21.6 


4.63 


25.7 


3.89 


29.8 


3.36 


37.8 


2.65 


21.7 


4.61 


25.8 


3.88 


29.9 


3.34 


38 


2.63 


21.8 


4.59 


25.9 


3.86 


30 


3.33 


38.2 


2.62 


21.9 


4.57 


26 


3.85 


30.2 


3.31 


38.4 


2.60 


22 


4.55 


26.1 


3.83 


30.4 


3.29 


38.6 


2.59 


22.1 


4.52 


26.2 


3.82 


30.6 


3.27 


38.8 


2.58 


22.2 


4.50 


26.3 


3.80 


30.8 


3.25 


39 


2.56 


22.3 


4.48 


26.4 


3.79 


31 


3.23 


39.2 


2.55 


22.4 


4.46 


26.5 


3.77 


31.2 


3.21 


39.4 


2.54 


22.5 


4.44 


26.6 


3.76 


31.4 


3.18 


39.6 


2.53 


22.6 


4.42 


26.7 


3.75 


31.6 


3.16 


39.8 


2.51 


22.7 


4.41 


26.8 


3.73 


31.8 


3.14 


40 


2.50 


22.8 


4.39 


26.9 


3.72 


32 


3.13 


40.2 


2.49 


22.9 


4.37 


27 


3.70 


32.2 


3.11 


40.4 


2.48 


23 


4.35 


27.1 


3.69 


32.4 


3.09 


40.6 


2.46 


23.1 


4.33 


27.2 


3.68 


32.6 


3.07 


40.8 


2.45 


23.2 


4.31 


27.3 


3.66 


32.8 


3.05 


41 


2.44 


23.3 


4.29 


27.4 


3.65 


33 


3.03 


41.2 


2.43 


23.4 


4.27 


27.5 


3.64 


33.2 


3.01 


41.4 


2.42 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 



15 



Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


Wt. 
inGr. 


Hank 

of 
Rov. 


of 12 

Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 
Yd. 


of 12 

Yd. 


41.6 


2.40 


56 


1.79 


76 


1.32 


128 


.78 


41.8 


2.39 


56.5 


1.77 


77 


1.30 


130 


.77 


42 


2.38 


57 


1.75 


78 


1.28 


132 


.76 


42.2 


2.37 


57.5 


1.74 


79 


1.27 


134 


.75 


42.4 


2.36 


58 


1.72 


80 


1.25 


136 


.74 


42.6 


2.35 


58.5 


1.71 


81 


1.23 


138 


.72 


42.8 


2.34 


59 


1.69 


82 


1.22 


140 


.71 


43 


2.33 


59.5 


1.68 


83 


1.20 


145 


.69 


43.2 


2.31 


60 


1.67 


84 


1.19 


150 


.67 


43:4 


2.30 


60.5 


1.65 


85 


1.18 


155 


.65 


43.6 


2.29 


61 


1.64 


86 


1.16 


160 


.63 


43.8 


2.28 


61.5 


1.63 


87 


1.15 


165 


.61 


44 


2.27 


62 


1.61 


88 


1.14 


170 


.59 


44.2 


2.26 


62.5 


1.60 


89 


1.12 


175 


.57 


44.4 


2.25 


63 


1.59 


90 


1.11 


180 


.56 


44.6 


2.24 


63.5 


1.57 


91 


1.10 


185 


.54 


44.8 


2.23 


64 


1.56 


92 


1.09 


190 


.53 


45 


2.22 


64.5 


1.55 


93 


1.08 


195 


.51 


45.5 


2.20 


65 


1.54 


94 


1.06 


200 


.50 


46 


2.17 


65.5 


1.53 


95 


1.05 


210 


.48 


46.5 


2.15 


66 


1.52 


96 


1.04 


220 


.45 


47 


2.13 


66.5 


1.50 


97 


1.03 


230 


.43 


47.5 


2.11 


67 


1.49 


98 


1.02 


240 


.42 


48 


2.08 


67.5 


1.48 


99 


1.01 


250 


.40 


48.5 


2.06 


68 


1.47 


100 


1.00 


260 


.38 


49 


2.04 


68.5 


1.46 


102 


.98 


270 


.37 


49.5 


2.02 


69 


1.45 


104 


.96 


280 


.36 


50 


2.00 


69.5 


1.44 


106 


.94 


290 


.34 


50.5 


1.98 


70 


1.43 


108 


.93 


300 


.33 


51 


1.96 


70.5 


1.42 


110 


.91 


320 


.31 


51.5 


1.94 


71 


1.41 


112 


.89 


340 


.29 


52 


1.92 


71.5 


1.40 


114 


.88 


360 


.28 


52.5 


. 1.90 


72 


1.39 


116 


.86 


380 


.26 


53 


1.89 


72.5 


1.38 


118 


.85 


400 


.25 


53.5 


1.87 


73 


1.37 


120 


.83 


425 


.24 


54 


1.85 


73.5 


1.36 


122 


.82 


450 


.22 


54.5 


1.83 


74 


1.35 


124 


.81 


475 


.21 


55 


1.82 


74.5 


1.34 


126 


.79 


500 


.20 


55.5 


1.80 


75 


1.33 











16 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



If other than 120 yd. is weighed in the case of yam or 12 yd. 
in the case of roving, the preceding tables are not appUcable. 
The following table of dividends for numbering cotton 
yam and roving, however, shows various numbers that are 
used as dividends when various lengths of yam or roving, are 
weighed. For instance, the weight in grains of 30 yd. of yarn 
or roving divided into 250 gives as a quotient the counts of the 
yarn or hank of the roving. 

TABLE OF DIVIDENDS FOR NUMBERING COTTON 
YARN AND ROVING 





Divide 




Divide 


Yards 


Weight in 


Yards 


Weight in 


Weighed 


Grains 


Weighed 


Grains 




Into 




Into 


1 


81 


15 


125 


2 


16f 


20 


1661 


3 


25 


30 


250 


4 


33^ 


40 


333 i 


6 


50 


60 


500 


8 


661 


120 


1,000 


10 


83 § 


240 


2,000 


12 


100 


480 


4,000 



Other Methods of Finding Counts of Cotton Yam. — The 

following numbered paragraphs give various methods of find- 
ing the counts of cotton yarn: 

1. Multiply number of yards weighed by 8| and divide by 
weight in grains. 

2. Multiply number of yards weighed by 25 and divide by 
3 times the weight in grains. 

3. Add two ciphers (multiply by 100) to the number of 
yards weighed and divide by 12 times the weight in grains. 

4. Divide the number of yards weighed by .12 times the 
weight in grains. 

5. Multiply the number of inches that are required to 
weigh 1 gr. by .2315. 

6. Divide the number of inches of yarn that are required 
to weigh 1 gr. by 4.32. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 17 

SILK YARNS 

The use, in cotton mills, of silk yarns in connection 
with cotton yarns in the production of high-grade and 
fancy fabrics is constantly increasing. These yarns fre- 
quently are used for filling in fabrics woven with combed 
and mercerized cotton warps, such as fine shirtings. In 
addition, silk yarns are used in many cotton fabrics as 
ornamental, or figuring, threads in both warp and filling. 

Several methods of designating the size, or counts, of 
silk yarns are employed in the United States. Raw silk, 
as imported into this country, is numbered in accordance 
with the so-called "denier" system. Thrown silks, that is, 
silk yarns prepared by the reeling, doubling, twisting, 
etc. of raw silk, are prepared in various ways for many 
different purposes. Those intended for warp yarn are 
known as organzine; those to be used as filling yarn are 
called tram. Thrown silks usually are designated accord- 
ing to size by a method known as the "dram" system, 
but sometimes the denier system is employed. Spun silk 
yarns, produced by carding and spinning processes from 
waste silk, and pierced, tangled, broken, and inferior 
cocoons of the silk worm, are numbered in a manner 
exactly similar to that employed in the case of cotton 
yarns. That is, the size of these yarns is indicated by 
the number of hanks, each 840 yds. in length, that are 
required to weigh 1 lb. 

The Denier System. — The denier system of designating 
the size, or counts, of raw silks is based upon a skein of 
yarn having a fixed length of 450 meters, and upon a 
standard weight of 5 centigrams. The skein of yarn for 
weighing usually is wound upon a reel having a cir- 
cumferential dimension of 112J centimeters, thus requir- 
ing 400 revolutions of the reel to produce a skein of yarn 
containing the required length of 450 meters. If this 
skein of yarn weighed 5 centigrams (.05 gram) it would 
be a 1-denier silk; if the skein weighed 10 centigrams, 
the yarn would be a 2-denier silk, etc. Practically, of 
course, a silk yarn as fine as 1 denier in size is impos- 



18 YARN CALCULATIONS 

sible, since the individual filaments of silk as unwound 
from the cocoon of the silkworm vary in size from 
2 deniers to 4 deniers, or even coarser. The filament 
from the cocoon is said to have an average size of about 
2| deniers, so that if six of these filaments are reeled 
together to produce a commercial raw silk yarn, the size 
of that yarn will be about 131 deniers. The counting of 
the cocoon filaments in raw silks to determine the 
denier, however, may be considered only as corroborating 
more accurate tests. It should never be accepted as a 
certain indication of the denier, since the cocoon filament 
not only varies in size in different varieties of silk but 
also at different seasons of the year, and under other 
conditions. An 8/10-denier silk, made from, perhaps, three 
cocoons, is about the finest silk used in actual practice. 

Raw silk is irregular, or uneven, in size to a consid- 
erable extent on account of the natural variation in the 
size of the silk filaments produced by the silkworm. 
While careful reeling reduces this variation to a con- 
siderable degree, raw silk yarns do not possess the 
degree of uniformity in size and number of yards to the 
pound that is characteristic of drawn and spun yarns, 
such as cotton yarns. Therefore, the denier of a raw 
silk yarn is always expressed by covering three deniers, 
as, for instance, a 13/15-denier silk yarn, a 14/16-denier 
silk, a 15/17-denier yarn, etc. These expressions mean, 
in the first instance, that the silk varies in size from 
13i to Hi deniers; in the second case, the possible varia- 
tion is from 14| to 151 deniers; and, in the last example, 
the size varies from 15i to 161 deniers. In making cal- 
culations the average denier of raw silk yarns should be 
considered. Thus, a 13/15-denier silk should be figured 
as a 14-denier yarn, that is, as a silk 450 meters of 
■which will weigh 70 centigrams (14X5=70). 

Because of the variation in the size of raw silks a 
single test to determine the denier of the yarn is unre- 
liable and extremely unlikely to indicate the average 
denier of the silk in any one bale. It is customary, 
therefore, in determining the size of raw silks, to draw 



YARN CALCULATIONS 19 

10 skeins from each bale, taking the skeins from differ- 
ent parts of the bale. From each of these skeins, three 
reelings are made and, to their absolutely dry weight, 

11 per cent, is added for normal moisture regain. The 
average denier of these reelings is the denier of that 
bale of silk and the variation in the weight of the 
reelings indicates the variation in the size of the silk 
in that particular bale, or the uniformity in size, or 
otherwise, of the silk. 

In addition to the foregoing test, a sizing test in, 
which long reelings are made serves to indicate more 
accurately the yardage per given weight of raw silks, 
although it does not so clearly show the variation in 
the size of the silk in a single bale. This is known as 
the compound-sizing test and consists of making 20 reel- 
ings of 4,500 meters each from skeins drawn from different 
parts of each bale. Since the varying inequalities in 
size are overrun by long reelings, this test is very reli- 
able in giving the correct average size and average 
number of yards per pound of the silk in a bale. 

In making calculations relative to raw silks in 
accordance with the denier system, the following metric 
conversion table will be found useful: 

DENIER SYSTEM CONVERSION TABLE 

Standard length 

of reeling =450 meters=492.13 yards 
Standard weight, 

or "denier" =5 centigrams=. 771618 grain 

One meter =39.3704 inches=1.093623 yards 

One gram =20 "denier" weights (.05 gram each) 

One gram '=15.43236 grains 

One ounce =567 (practically) "denier" weights 

One ounce =437.5 grains 

One pound =9,072 (practically) "denier" weights 

One pound =7,000 grains 

One pound =453.592 grams 



20 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



Since the standard length for reeling is equal to 492.13 
yd. and the standard weight, or "denier," is equal to 
,771618 gr., the length per pound (7,000 gr.) of a theo- 

AVERAGE YARDS PER POUND, DENIER SYSTEM 







Yards per 






Yards per 


Denier 

of 

Silk 


Average 
Denier 


Pound 
(Calcu- 
lated 


Denier 

of 

Silk 


Average 
Denier 


Pound 
(Calcu- 
lated 






Average) 






Average) 


9/11 


10 


446,453 


34/36 


35 


127,558 


10/12 


11 


405,866 


35/37 


36 


124,015 


11/13 


12 


372,044 


36/38 


37 


120,663 


12/14 


13 


343,425 


37/39 


38 


117,488 


13/15 


14 


318,895 


38/40 


39 


114,475 


14/16 


15 


297,635 


39/41 


40 


111,613 


15/17 


16 


279,033 


40/42 


41 


108,891 


16/18 


17 


262,619 


41/43 


42 


106,298 


17/19 


18 


248,029 


42/44 


43 


103,826 


18/20 


19 


234,975 


43/45 


44 


101,467 


19/21 


20 


223,226 


44/46 


45 


99,212 


20/22 


21 


212,597 


45/47 


46 


97,055 


21/23 


22 


202,933 


46/48 


47 


94,990 


22/24 


23 


194,110 


47/49 


48 


93,011 


23/25 


24 


186,022 


48/50 


49 


91,113 


24/26 


25 


178,581 


49/51 


50 


89,291 


25/27 


28 


171,713 


50/52 


51 


87,540 


26/28 


27 


165,353 


51/53 


52 


85,856 


27/29 


28 


159,447 


52/54 


53 


84,236 


28/30 


29 


153,949 


53/55 


54 


82,676 


29/31 


30 


148,818 


54/56 


55 


81,173 


30/32 


31 


144,017 


55/57 


56 


79,724 


31/33 


32 


139,517 


56/58 


57 


78,325 


32/34 


33 


135,289 


57/59 


58 


76,975 


33/35 


34 


131,310 


58/60 


59 


75,670 



retical 1-denier silk would be as indicated by the following 
calculation: 

492.13 (yd.)X7,000 (gr. per lb.) 

^^,^^„ , 3 — -. — r =4,464,527.7 or, prac- 

.771618 (gr. per denier) 

tically, 4,464,528 yd. 
The following rules, therefore, may be used in connec- 



YARN CALCULATIONS 21 

tion with the denier system, and are especially adapted to 
cotton-mill practice. 

Rule. — To find the denier of raw silk yarns, divide 
4,464,528 by the yards per pound of the silk. 

Example. — If 600 yd. of raw silk weighs 21 grains, 
what is the size of the silk? 

Solution. — 

600(yd.)X7 00gr.perlb.) ^ ^^ 

21 (gr.) 
4,464,528-^200,000 (yd. per lb.)=22.32-denier silk 

Rule. — To find the yards per pound of raw silk yarns, 
divide 4,464,528 by the average denier of the silk. 

Example. — How many yards are contained in one 
pound of 14/16 denier raw silk? 

Solution. — The average size of the silk in this case 
can be assumed to be 15-denier. Then, 

4,464,528^15=297,635.2 yd. per lb. 

Rule. — To find the weight in pounds of raw silk, divide 
4)464,528 by the denier of the silk and divide the quotient 
thus^ obtained into the total number of yards. 

Example. — What is the weight in pounds of 557,066 
yards of 20-denier silk? 

Solution.— 4,464,528^20=223,226.4 yd. per lb. 
892,912-^557,066=21 lb. 

The Dram System.— The dram system of designating 
the size of thrown silk yarns is based upon a standard 
length, or reeling, of 1,000 yards and the size of the 
silk is determined by the weight in drams of this length 
of yarn. For instance, if 1,000 yards of thrown silk 
weigh 4 drams, the yarn is a 4-dram silk, etc. A 
l,C00-yd. reeling is always made except in cases where 
the silk is very coarse and a reeling of this length 
would result in a bulky skein and cause excessive 
waste in sizing the yarn. Under these circumstances, 
500 yards or 250 yards are reeled and the weight in 
drams of these lengths multiplied by two or four, as the 
case may be, in order to obtain the true size of the silk. 

Since one pound contains 256 drams, one pound of 
one-dram silk will contain 256 times 1,000 yards, or 



22 YARN CALCULATIONS 

256,000 yards. Therefore, the following rules, especially 
arranged for use in cotton mills, are applicable to 
thrown silks numbered by the dram system. 

Rule. — To find the drainage of thrown silk yarns, divide 
2^6,000 by the yards per pound of the silk. 

Example. — If 32,000 yards of thrown silk are required 
to weigh one pound, what is the dramage of the yarn? 

Solution. — 256,000^32,000=8-dram silk 

Rule. — To find the yards per pound of thrown silk 
yarns, divide 256,000 by the dramage of the silk. 

Example. — How many yards of yarn are there in one 
pound of 2j-dram silk? 

Solution. — 256,000-^21=102,400 yd. 

Rule. — To find the weight in pounds of thrown silk, 
divide 256,000 by the dramage of the silk and divide the 
quotient thus obtained into the total number of yards. 

Example. — What is the weight in pounds of 819,200 
yards of 5-dram silk? 

Solution. — 256,000^5 = 51,200 yd. per lb. 
819,200^-51,200=16 lb. 

It will be noted that both the denier system and the 
dram system of numbering silk yarns diifer materially in 
principle from the systems employed in numbering cotton, 
woolen, worsted, spun silk, etc., since in the former 
cases the higher the number of the yarn the coarser it is, 
and, in the latter systems, the higher the counts the finer 
the yarn and the greater the number of yards per pound 
that it contains. 

In both the denier and the dram systems the weight 
of the silk is taken "in the gum," that is, the natural gum, 
or sericin, of the silk fiber is not removed by any 
"boiling-off" process, nor is any compensation made for 
the removal of the gum in calculations for finding the size 
of the yarns. For this reason, silk yarns that have been 
boiled off and, also, dyed will be finer and contain a 
greater number of yards per pound than the indicated 
size of the yarn warrants. The exact amount of this 
change in the true counts and yards per pound of 
boiled-off silks depends upon the variety of the silk and 



YARN CALCULATIONS 23 

the extent to which the boiling-oflf process is carried as 
well as its nature, but will average fully 25 per cent, in 
the case of dyed thrown silk. 

The size of silks is sometimes designated in accordance 
with the number of yards per ounce. Thus, a 20,000-yd, 
silk is one 20,000 yards of which weigh one ounce. 
Schappe, or spun waste, silk yarns imported from 
Continental European countries, are usually numbered 
with a standard hank, or skein, length of 500 meters and 
a standard weight of h kilogram. This is practically 
equal to 496 yd. per pound. 

Denier and Dram Equivalent Counts.— Since a one- 
denier silk contains 4,464,528 yd. per lb. and a one-dram 
silk has 256,000 yd. per lb., the constant for converting 
the counts of one system into the equivalent counts of the 
other system is equal to 4,464,528-^256,000, or 17.44, and 
the following rules apply: 

Rule. — To convert a silk yarn, numbered by the denier 
system, to equivalent counts in the dram system, divide 
the deniers by I7-44- 

Example. — What is the equivalent in the dram system 
of a 24/26-denier silk? 

Solution. — Considering the average size of the silk to 
be 25 deniers, 

25^17.44=1.433-dram silk 

Rule. — To convert a silk yarn, numbered by the dram 
system, to equivalent counts in the denier system, mul- 
tiply the dramage by 17.44. 

Example. — What is the equivalent in the denier system 
of a 2-dram silk? 

Solution. — 2Xl7.44=34.88-denier silk 

Artificial Silk. — ^Artiiicial silk is produced by a com- 
bination of various chemical and mechanical processes. 
These operations, and the basic materials employed in 
them, vary according to the desired nature of the finished 
product, there being several varieties of artificial silk. 

Cellulose artificial silk, which is produced in large 
quantities, involves, in its manufacture, the chemical 
treatment of some form of cellulose, such as cotton or 



24 YARN CALCULATIONS 

wood. The latter is generally employed, and is utilized 
in the form of sulphite wood pulp which is chemically and 
mechanically treated so as to form a viscous solution, 
that is technically called viscose. This viscose is forced 
under pressure through very fine orifices, called "spin- 
nerets," into a solution that coagulates it into a con- 
tinuous strand of a gelatinous nature. Further treatment 
of a cleansing and finishing nature produces the artificial 
silk of commerce. 

Artificial silk is numbered by the denier system as in 
the case of raw silk, and is seven or eight times coarser 
in size than natural silk. These yarns are produced in 
sizes from about 60 deniers to 600 deniers. The finer 
sizes are not often obtainable, being imported from 
Europe. The coarser sizes are in more frequent use, the 
300-denier and 500-denier silks being quite often employed 
and regularly produced. 



OTHER YARN-NUMBERING SYSTEMS 

Yarns made of materials other than cotton are num- 
bered in a similar manner to cotton yarns, with the one 
exception that the standard length is different. The 
accompanying table gives the standard lengths used for 
various yarns and as in each case higher numbers indicate 
finer yarns, as in the cotton system, the same rules used 
in cotton-yarn numbering may be applied, the standard 
length only being altered as given in the table. 

STANDARD LENGTHS OF YARNS 



Yarns 



Cotton 

Spun silk 

Worsted 

Woolen (run system). 
Woolen (cut system). 
Linen 



Standard Length 
Yards 



840 
840 
560 
1,600 
300 
300 



YARN CALCULATIONS 25 

The run system is the standard American method of 
numbering woolen yarns; the cut system is used prin- 
cipally in Philadelphia and vicinity. Woolen yarn is also 
numbered in some districts by stating the weight in grains 
of a fixed length. In the "New Hampshire" system this 
length is 50 yd.; in the "Little Falls" system, 25 yd.; in 
the "Amsterdam" system, 122 yd., and in the "Cohoes" 
system, 6i yd. A length of 20 yd. also is occasionally 
used in connection with the system of expressing the 
weight in grains. 

The size of coarse Jute, flax, or hemp yarns is deter- 
mined by the weight in pounds of a standard length of 
14,400 yd., known as a spindle. Thus, if 14,400 yd. 
weighs 4 lb., the yarn would be known as a 4-lb. yarn; if 
it weighs 5 lb. it is a 5-lb. yarn, etc. In this system and 
in the woolen grain systems, it will be noted that higher 
numbers indicate coarser yarns. 

METRIC SYSTEM OF YARN NUMBERING 

From time to time there has been considerable agita- 
tion relative to the adoption of one system and the 
unification of the methods of indicating the degree of 
fineness of yarns produced from the various fibers used 
in the textile industry of the whole world. The chief 
objection is that, from long usage, the methods at 
present adopted are too well developed for a single cor- 
poration or a single country to take on itself such a 
reform, without being assured that its neighbors and 
competitors will simultaneously and unanimously do the 
same thing. 

The method usually advocated is that of numbering all 
classes of yarns by what is known as the metric system, 
in which 1 meter of No. 1 yarn weighs 1 gram, the meter 
being the unit of length in the metric system and the 
gram the unit of weight. The equivalents of the meter 
and the gram are as follows: 

1 yard = .914 meter, 1 pound = 453.59 grams 



26 YARN CALCULATIONS 

To find the number of yarn in any present standard 
system that corresponds to the number of yarn in the 
metric standard system: 

Rule. — Multiply the counts, given in the metric system, by 
453-59 (gt'ams in i lb.) mid divide by the standard number 
of yards to the pound in the present system multiplied by 
.914 (meter in i yard). 

Example. — A cotton yarn numbered according to the 
metric system is marked 40s. Find the counts in the 
present system. 

c, 40X453.59 -, ^,, . 

Solution.— 840X 914 ^^^•^^^^- '^"^• 

To find the number of yarn in the metric standard 
system that corresponds to the number of yarn in any 
present standard system: 

Rule. — Multiply the counts, given in the present system, 
by the present standard number of yards to the pound 
and by .914 (,m,eters in J yd.) and divide by 453.59 {grams 
in I pound). 

Example. — A worsted yarn numbered according to the 

present system is marked 46s. Find the counts in the 

metric system. 

„ 46X560X.914 ., „„^ . 

Solution. — t^ttt, = ol.907s. Ans. 

453.59 



EQUIVALENT COUNTS 

Often it becomes necessary to place the counts of one 
yarn in the system of another. That is, it may be neces- 
sary to learn what the counts of a certain cotton yarn 
■would be if it were numbered similarly to a worsted 
thread. When two, three, or more threads made from 
different raw stock and numbered according to different 
methods are placed in the same system, they are said to 
be reduced to equivalent counts. 

Rule. — To find the counts of one system that is equiva- 
lent to that of another, multiply the given counts by the 
number of yards in the standard length of the specified 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



27 



system and divide by the number of yards in the standard 
length of the system required. 

Example 1. — Find the equivalent of a 40s cotton in 
worsted counts. 

Solution.— 840X40=33,600 

33,600^560=60s, worsted 

Explanation. — Since there are 840 yd. of yarn in 1 lb. 
of Is cotton, there will be 40X840, or 33,600, yd. in 1 lb. 
of 40s. The question then is to find the worsted counts 
of a yarn containing 33,600 yd. to the pound. Since 
length divided by (standard multiplied by weight) equals 
counts, then 33,600-^(560X1) must equal the counts. 

Example 2. — Find the equivalent of a 16s cotton yarn 
in the woolen run system. 

Solution.— 840X16 = 13,440 

13, 440^1,600=8. 4-run, woolen 

SHORT METHODS OF FINDING EQUIVALENT 
COUNTS 

The accompanying table of multipliers, divisors, and 
dividends may be used for finding quickly the equivalent 
cotton counts of any yarn the counts of which are ex- 

CONSTANTS FOR EQUIVALENT COTTON COUNTS 



Yarn-Numbering System 


Multiplier 


Divisor 


Dividend 


Linen 


.357 or t\ 
.667 or § 
.59 or f 
.019 or tIk 
1.905 or fa 
.357 or fj 


2.8 
1.5 
1.7 
52.5 
.525 
2.8 




Worsted 




Schappe Silk (496 yd.) 

Silk (yards per ounce system) 

Woolen (run system) 

Woolen (cut system) 

Woolen (New Ham-pshire 
system) 


416.67 


Woolen (Little Falls system) 
Woolen (Amsterdam system) 
Woolen (Cohoes system) .... 
Woolen (20 yd. grain system) 

Silk (denier system) 

Silk (dram system) 

Coarse jute, fia:i, and hemp . 


208.33 
104.17 

52.083 
166.7 
5,315 
304.8 

17.14 



28 YARN CALCULATIONS 

pressed in some other system. For instance, multiplying 
the counts of a worsted yarn by .667 (§), or dividing the 
counts by 1.5 i.f), gives the equivalent cotton counts of 
the yarn. In a similar way, the counts of a silk yarn, 
numbered by the denier system, if divided into 5,315 
gives as a quotient the equivalent cotton counts. 



TWIST IN YARNS 

To impart to yarn the required strength it is necessary 
to insert a certain amount of twist. Warp yarn requires 
more twist than filling yarn, because it must withstand 
a greater strain during the weaving process. The turns 
of twist per inch vary with different mills and in various 
kinds of yarn, but all systems are based on the follow- 
ing rule: 

Rtile. — To find the twist to be inserted in any counts of 
yarns multiply the square root of the counts by the 
standard, or constant, adopted. 

In American mills, the twist constant adopted for ring- 
spun warp yarn is usually 4.75, and for filling yarn 3.75. 
Other constants frequently employed are shown in the 
accompanying twist table, which also shows the turns of 
twist per inch to be inserted in various counts of yarn. 

Occasionally a twist constant of 4.50 is used for ring- 
spun warp yarn and sometimes extra-twist mule-spun 
warp yarn is produced with a constant of 4.00. For the 
production of yarns for special purposes, twist constants 
are varied as the case may demand. 

Twist may be imparted to a yarn in either a right-hand 
or a left-hand direction. There is some confusion as to 
■what constitutes a right-hand or a left-hand twist, but 
the general custom is to follow the universal machine- 
shop practice in this matter, that is, a right-hand twist 
in a yarn lies in the same direction as a right-hand 
thread on a bolt or screw, etc. Right-hand twist is often 
spoken of as "regular" twist. 





YARN CALCULATIONS 


29 






TWIST 


TABLE 










Ring- 








Counts, 

or 
Number, 
of Yam 


Ordinary 
Ring- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yam 


Spun 
Filling 

and 
Mule- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yarn 


Mule- 
Spun 
Filling 
Yarn 


Hosiery 
Yam 


Square 
Root of 
Counts 


Twist 
Constant 


4.75 


3.75 


3.25 


2.50 




1 


4.75 


3.75 


3.25 


2.5 


1.00 


2 


6.7 


5.3 


4.6 


3.5 


1.41 


3 


8.2 


6.5 


5.6 


4.3 


1.73 


4 


9.5 


7.5 


6.5 


5.0 


2.00 


5 


10.6 


8.4 


7.3 


5.6 


2.24 


6 


11.6 


9.2 


8.0 


6.1 


2.45 


7 


12.6 


9.9 


8.6 


6.6 


2.65 


8 


13.4 


10.6 


9.2 


7.1 


2.83 


9 


14.3 


11.3 


9.8 


7.5 


3.00 


10 


15.0 


11.9 


10.3 


7.9 


3.16 


11 


15.8 


12.5 


10.8 


8.3 


3.32 


12 


16.4 


13.0 


11.2 


8.7 


3.46 


13 


17.2 


13.5 


11.7 


9.0 


3.61 


14 


17.8 


14.0 


12.2 


9.4 


3.74 


15 


18.4 


14.5 


12.6 


9.7 


3.87 


16 


19.0 


15.0 


13.0 


10.0 


4.00 


17 


19.6 


15.5 


13.4 


10.3 


4.12 


18 


20.1 


15.9 


13.8 


10.6 


4.24 


19 


20.7 


16.4 


14.2 


10.9 


4.36 


20 


21.2 


16.8 


14.5 


11.2 


4.47 


21 


21.8 


17.2 


14.9 


11.5 


4.58 


22 


22.3 


17.6 


15.3 


11.7 


4.69 


23 


22.8 


18.0 


15.6 


12.0 


4.80 


24 


23.3 


18.4 


15.9 


12.3 


4.90 


25 


23.8 


18.8 


16.3 


12.5 


5.00 


26 


24.2 


19.1 


16.6 


12.8 


5.10 


27 


24.7 


19.5 


16.9 


13.0 


5.20 


28 


25.1 


19.8 


17.2 


13.2 


5.29 


29 


25.6 


20.2 


17.5 


13.5 


5.39 


30 


26.0 


20.6 


17.8 


13.7 


5.48 


31 


26.5 


20.9 


18.1 


13.9 


5.57 


32 


26.9 


21.2 


18.4 


14.2 


5.66 


33 


27.3 


21.5 


18.7 


14.4 


5.74 


34 


27.7 


21.9 


18.9 


14.6 


5.83 


35 


28.1 


22.2 


19.2 


14.8 


5.92 


36 


28.5 


22.5 


19.5 


15.0 


6.00 


37 


28.9 


22.8 


19.8 


15.2 


6.08 



30 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 







Ring- 








Counts, 


Ordinary 
Ring- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yarn 


Spun 
Filling 


Mule- 




Square 
Root of 


or 


and 


Spun 


Hosiery 


Number, 
of Yam 


Mule- 
Spun 
Warp 


Filling 
Yarn 


Yarn 


Counts 






Yarn 








Twist 
Constant 


4.75 


3.75 


3.25 


2.50 




38 


29.3 


23.1 


20.0 


15.4 


6.16 


39 


29.7 


23.4 


20.3 


15.6 


6.25 


40 


30.0 


23.7 


20.5 . 


15.8 


6.32 


41 


30.4 


24.0 


20.8 


16.0 


6.40 


42 


30.8 


24.3 


21.1 


16.2 


6.48 


43 


31.2 


24.6 


21.3 


16.4 


6.56 


44 


31.5 


24.9 


21.5 


16.6 


6.63 


45 


31.9 


25.2 


21.8 


16.8 


6.71 


46 


32.2 


25.4 


22.0 


17.0 


6.78 


47 


32.6 


25.7 


22.3 


17.2 


6.86 


48 


32.9 


26.0 


22.5 


17.3 


6.93 


49 


33.3 


26.3 


22.8 


17.5 


7.00 


50 


33.6 


26.5 


23.0 


17.7 


7.07 


51 


33.9 


26.8 


23.2 


17.9 


7.14 


52 


34.2 


27.0 


23.4 


18.0 


7.21 


53 


34.6 


27.3 


23.7 


18.2 


7.28 


54 


34.9 


27.6 


23.9 


18.4 


7.35 


55 


35.2 


27.8 


24.1 


18.6 


7.42 


56 


35.5 


28.1 


24.3 


18.7 


7.48 


57 


35.9 


28.3 


24.5 


18.9 


7.55 


58 


36.2 


28.6 


24.8 


19.1 


7.62 


59 


36.5 


28.8 


25.0 


19.2 


7.68 


60 


36.8 


29.1 


25.2 


19.4 


7.75 


61 


37.1 


29.3 


25.4 


19.5 


7.81 


62 


37.4 


29.5 


25.6 


19.7 


7.87 


63 


37.7 


29.8 


25.8 


19.9 


7.94 


64 


38.0 


30.0 


26.0 


20.0 


8.00 


65 


38.3 


30.2 


26.2 


20.2 


8.06 


66 


38.6 


30.5 


26.4 


20.3 


8.12 


67 


38.9 


30.7 


26.6 


20.5 


8.19 


68 


39.2 


30.9 


26.8 


20.6 


8.25 


69 


39.5 


31.2 


27.0 


20.8 


8.31 . 


70 


39.8 


31.4 


27.2 


20.9 


8.37 


71 


40.0 


31.6 


27.4 


21.1 


8.43 


72 


40.3 


31.8 


27.6 


21.2 


8.49 


73 


40.6 


32.0 


27.8 


21.4 


8.54 


74 


40.9 


32.3 


28.0 


21.5 


8.60 



YARN CALCULATIONS 

Table — (Continued) 



31 







Ring- 








Counts, 
or 

Number, 
of Yarn 


Ordinary 
Ring- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yarn 


Spun 
Filling 

and 
Mule- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yam 


Mule- 
Spun 
Filling 
Yarn 


Hosiery 
Yam 


Square 
Root of 
Counts 


Twist 
Constant 


4.75 


3.75 


3.25 


?.50 




75 


41.1 


32.5 


28.1 


21.7 


8.66 


76 


41.4 


32.7 


28.3 


21.8 


8.72 


77 


41.7 


32.9 


28.5 


22.0 


8.78 


78 


41.9 


33.1 


28.7 


22.1 


8.83 


79 


42.2 


33.3 


28.9 


22.2 


8.89 


80 


42.5 


33.5 


29.1 


22.4 


8.94 


81 


42.8 


33.8 


29.3 


22.5 


9.00 


82 


43.0 


34.0 


29.4 


22.7 


9.06 


83 


43.3 


34.2 


29.6 


22.8 


9.11 


84 


43.6 


34.4 


29.8 


22.9 


9.17 


85 ■ 


43.8 


34.6 


30.0 


23.1 


9.22 


86 


44.0 


34.8 


30.1 


23.2 


9.27 


87 


44.3 


35.0 


30.3 


23.3 


9.33 


88 


44.6 


35.2 


30.5 


23.5 


9.38 


89 


44.8 


35.4 


30.6 


23.6 


9.43 


90 


45.1 


35.6 


30.8 


23.7 


9.49 


91 


45.3 


35.8 


31.0 


23.9 


9.54 


92 


45.6 


36.0 


31.2 


24.0 


9.59 


93 


45.8 


36.2 


31.3 


24.1 


9.64 


94 


46.1 


36.4 


31.5 


24.3 


9.70 


95 


46.3 


36.6 


31.7 


24.4 


9.75 


96 


46.6 


36.8 


31.9 


24.5 


9.80 


97 


46.8 


37.0 


32.0 


24.6 


9.85 


98 


47.0 


37.1 


32.2 


24.8 


9.90 


99 


47.3 


37.3 


32.3 


24.9 


9.95 


100 


47.5 


37.5 


32.5 


25.0 


10.00 


101 


47.7 


37.7 


32.7 


25.1 


10.05 


102 


48.0 


37.9 


32.8 


25.3 


10.10 


103 


48.2 


38.1 


33.0 


25.4 


10.15 


104 


48.5 


38.3 


33.2 


25.5 


10.20 


106 


48.7 


38.4 


33.3 


25.6 


10.25 


106 


48.9 


38.6 


33.5 


25.8 


10.30 


107 


49.1 


38.8 


33.6 


25.9 


10.34 


108 


49.4 


39.0 


33.8 


26.0 


10.39 


109 


49.6 


39.2 


33.9 


26.1 


10.44 


110 


49.8 


39.4 


34.1 


26.2 


10.49 


111 


50.1 


39.5 


34.3 


26.4 


10.54 



.32 



YARN CALCULATIONS 
Table — (Continued) 







Ring- 








Counts, 


Ordinary 
Ring- 
Spun 
Warp 
Yam 


Spun 
FilUng 


Mule- 




Square 
Root of 
Counts 


or 

Number, 
of Yarn 


and 
Mule- 
Spun 
Warp 


Spun 
Filling 
Yam 


Hosiery 
Yarn 






Yarn 








Twist 
Constant 


4.75 


3.75 


3.25 


2.50 




112 


50.3 


39.7 


34.4 


26.5 


10.58 


113 


50.5 


39.9 


34.5 


26.6 


10.63 


114 


50.7 


40.1 


34.7 


26.7 


10.68 


115 


50.9 


40.2 


34.8 


26.8 


10.72 


116 


51.2 


40.4 


35.0 


26.9 


10.77 


117 


51.4 


40.6 


35.2 


27.1 


10.82 


118 


51.6 


40.7 


35.3 


27.2 


10.86 


119 


51.8 


40.9 


35.5 


27.3 


10.91 


120 


52.0 


41.1 


35.6 


27.4 


10.95 


121 


52.3 


41.3 


35.8 


27.5 


11.00 


122 


52.5 


41.4 


35.9 


27.6 


11.05 


123 


52.7 


41.6 


36.0 


27.7 


11.09 


124 


52.9 


41.8 


36.2 


27.9 


11.14 


125 


53.1 


41.9 


36.3 


28.0 


11.18 


126 


53.3 


42.1 


36.5 


28.1 


11.23 


127 


53.5 


42.3 


36.6 


28.2 


11.27 


128 


53.7 


42.4 


36.8 


28.3 


11.31 


129 


54.0 


42.6 


36.9 


28.4 


11.36 


130 


54.2 


42.8 


37.1 


28.5 


11,40 


131 


54.4 


42.9 


37.2 


28.6 


11.45 


132 


54.6 


43.1 


37.3 


28.7 


11.49 


133 


54.8 


43.2 


37.5 


28.8 


11.53 


134 


55.0 


43.4 


37.6 


29.0 


11.58 


135 


55.2 


43.6 


37.8 


29.1 


11.62 


136 


55.4 


43.7 


37.9 


29.2 


11.66 


137 


55.6 


43.9 


38.0 


29.3 


11.70 


138 


55.8 


44.1 


38.2 


29.4 


11.75 


139 


56.0 


44.2 


38.3 


29.5 


11.79 


140 


56.2 


44.4 


38.4 


29.6 


11.83 


141 


56.4 


44.5 


38.6 


29.7 


11.87 


142 


56.6 


44.7 


38.7 


29.8 


11.92 


143 


56.8 


44.9 


38.9 


29.9 


11.96 


144 


57.0 


45.0 


39.0 


30.0 


12.00 


145 


57.2 


45.2 


39.1 


30.1 


12.04 


146 


57.4 


45.3 


39.3 


30.2 


12.08 


147 


57.6 


45.5 


39.4 


30.3 


12.12 


148 


57.8 


45.6 


39.6 


30.4 


12.17 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



33 



BREAKING WEIGHT OF COTTON WARP 
YARN 

The strength of warp yarn is of great importance and these 
yams should be frequently tested to determine whether the 
proper standard of strength for the various counts is being 
maintained. An instrument for determining the strength of a 
yarn is shown in the accompanying illustration. In testing 

the strength of the yam, it is the 
custom to wrap, or reel, one skein 
of 120 yd. of yarn, the reel being 
1| yd. in circumference, and place 
this skein on the hooks o, & of the 
tester. By turning the handle 
until the yam breaks, the niunber 
of pounds required to break the 
skein is registered on the dial. 
To obtain fairly accurate results, 
skeins from ionr or five bobbins 
should be reeled and broken and 
the results averaged. Care should 
be taken to operate the tester at 
as nearly a uniform speed as 
possible or the results will be 
erroneous; a power-driven tester 
gives more reliable results than 
one operated by hand. The skeins 
of yarn should be carefully straight- 
ened out when placed on the tester 
and no twisted or tangled skeins 
should be broken. The results 
obtained by this machine are 
averages only and do not show whether a yarn is evenly spun and 
has a uniform strength throughout; only a single-thread test can 
do that. Single-thread tests, however, are difficult to make and 
of little value unless an exhaustive number of tests are made. 

"When finding a standard breaking weight for carded warp 
yams, the following rule may be employed. 




34 



YARN CALCULATIONS 



Rule. — Divide the courds of the yarn into 1,800, and to the 
quotient thus obtained add 3 lb. The result is a fair average 
breaking weight in pounds of a standard skein of yarn. 

AVERAGE BREAKING WEIGHT OF AMERICAN COTTON 
WARP YARNS 



Counts 

of 
Yarn 


Carded 
Warp 
Yarn 


Combed 
Warp 
Yarn 


Counts 

of 
Yarn 


Carded 
Yarn 


Combed 
Warp 
Yarn 


Counts 

of 
Yarn 


Combed 
Warp 
Yarn 


6 


303.0 


414.0 


36 


53.0 


66.4 


66 


34.9 


7 


26C.0 


354.0 


37 


51.6 


64.6 


67 


34.3 


8 


22S.0 


310.0 


38 


50.4 


62.8 


68 


33.8 


9 


203.0 


275.0 


39 


43 2 


61.1 


69 


33.2 


10 


1S3.0 


2-17.0 


40 


43.0 


59.5 


70 


32.7 


11 


167.0 


224.0 


41 


46.9 


58.0 


71 


32.2 


12 


153.0 


205.0 


42 


45.9 


58.5 


72 


31.7 


13 


142.0 


189.0 


43 


44.9 


55.1 


73 


31.2 


14 


132.0 


17G.0 


44 


43.9 


53.8 


74 


30.8 


15 


123.0 


164.0 


45 


43.0 


52.6 


75 


30.3 


16 


116.0 


153.0 


46 


42.1 


51.3 


76 


29.9 


17 


109.0 


144.0 


47 


41.3 


50.2 


77 


29.5 


18 


103.0 


136.0 


48 


40.5 


49.1 


78 


29.1 


19 


97.7 


123.0 


49 


39.7 


48.0 


79 


28.6 


20 


93.0 


122.0 


50 


39.0 


47.0 


80 


28.2 


21 


88.7 


116.0 


51 


38.3 


46.0 


82 


27.5 


22 


S4.8 


111.0 


52 


37.6 


45.1 


84 


26.8 


23 


81.3 


106.0 


53 


37.0 


44.2 


86 


26.1 


24 


7S.0 


101.0 


54 


36.3 


43.3 


88 


25.4 


25 


75.0 


97.0 


55 


35.7 


42.5 


90 


24.8 


26 


72.2 


93.2 


56 


35.1 


41.6 


92 


24.2 


27 


69.7 


8D.6 


57 


34.6 


40.9 


94 


23.6 


28 


67.3 


£G.3 


58 


34.0 


40.1 


96 


23.0 


29 


65.1 


83.2 


59 


33.5 


39.4 


98 


22.5 


30 


63.0 


£3.3 


60 


33.0 


38.7 


100 


22.0 


31 


61.1 


77.6 


61 


32.5 


38.0 


104 


21.0 


32 


59.3 


75.1 


62 


32.0 


37.3 


108 


20.1 


33 


57.5 


72.8 


63 


31.6 


36.7 


112 


19.3 


34 


55.9 


70.5 


64 


31.1 


36.1 


116 


18.6 


35 


54.4 


63.4 


65 


30.7 


35.5 


120 


17.8 



When it is desired to find a standard breaking weight for 
combed warp yams the following rule may be used: 



YARN CALCULATIONS 35 

Rule. — Divide the counts of the yarn into 2,500, and from the 
quotient thus obtained subtract 3 lb. 

The accompanying table, worked out by the preceding rules, 
gives fair average breaking weights in pounds for standard 
skeins of 120 yd., wrapped on a reel IJ yd. in circumference. 



PLY YARNS 

Method of Numbering. — Often two or more threads are 
twisted together to form one coarser thread. Such yams are 
commonly known as ply yarns, also sometimes called folded, 
or twisted, yarns. The method of numbering cotton ply yarns 
is that of giving the counts of the single yarns that are folded 
and placing before these counts the number that indicates the 
number of threads folded; thus, 2/40s indicates that two 
threads of 40s single yarn are folded together, the folded yarn 
being equal, in weight, to a single 20s yam. During the pro- 
cess of twisting a slight contraction takes place. Consequently, 
to make the resultant counts 20s, the single yarns that are folded 
must necessarily be slightly finer than, or spun on the light side 
of, 40s. However, this contraction will not be considered in 
the rules and examples to be given, since it is so slight as not to 
be a matter of mathematics. 

PLY- YARN CALCULATIONS 
Folded Yarns of the Same Counts. — It is not customary in 
mills to fold yams of different counts, since, unless novelty or 
special yams are required, single yams of equal counts m.ake the 
best double, or ply, yams. Consequently, when yams of the 
same counts are folded, in order to find the counts of the result- 
ing ply yam, it is simply necessary to divide the counts of the 
yams folded by the number of threads that constitute the ply 
yam. For example, if three threads of 90s cotton are folded 
to form a ply yarn, the resultant yam will be equivalent in 
weight to a single 30s (90 -J- 3 = 30) . The counts of the ply yam 
and the counts of the single yam that equal it in weight should 
be carefully distinguished; thus, the above yam is equal in 
weight to a single 30s, but is spoken of as a 3/90s, or 3-ply 90s. 



26 YARN CALCULATIONS 

The method of finding the counts, weight, and length of 
ply yarns is similar to that explained in connection with single 
yarns, with the exception that the counts of the ply yam do not 
indicate the actual counts of the thread but instead indicate the 
counts of the single yams folded. Consequently, when figuring 
to find these particulars, the actual weight of the ply yam must 
be taken into consideration, and, on this account, the counts of 
the single yam that the ply yarn equals are considered and not 
the counts of the single yarns that are folded. 

Example 1.— What is the weight of 642,000 yd. of 2-ply 

40s cotton yam? 

642,000 

Solution. — = 38.211b. 

20X840 

Explanation. — To make a 2-ply 40s, two ends of 40s are 
twisted together; consequently, a yard of the ply yarn will 
weigh just twice as much as a yard of one of the single yams 
folded, which will make the ply yam equal in weight to a 20s 
single yam. Therefore, 20, which is the actual counts of the 
ply yam, is used in the calculation. Since length divided by 
(counts multiplied by standard) equals weight, then 642,000 -r- 
(20X840) must equal the weight of the yam. 

Example 2.— What is the length of 20 lb. of 2-ply 36s 
cotton? 

Solution. — 20X 18X 840 = 302,400 yd. 

Explanation. — ^A 2-ply 36s is composed of two threads of 36s 
folded together; consequently, the weight of a yard of the ply 
yarn must be just twice that of a yard of one of the ends folded 
to make the ply yam. This will make the ply yam equal in 
weight to an 18s single yam, and 18s must be used as the counts 
of the ply yam in the calculation. Since weight times counts 
times standard equals length, then 20 X 18X840 must equal the 
number of yards in 20 lb. of 2-ply 36s. 

Example 3. — What are the counts of a 2-ply cotton yam, 
352,800 yd. of which weighs 10 lb.? 

352,800 

Solution. — =42s, or 2-ply 84s 

10X840 

Explanation. — Since length divided by (weight times 
standard) equals counts, then 352,800-^(10X840) must give 



YARN CALCULATIONS 37 

the actual counts of the ply yam; that is, this result gives the 
counts of the ply yam considered as a single yam, but since 
two single yams are folded and each of these is just half as 
heavy as the folded yam, then two ends of 84s must be folded 
to make the ply yam, which, consequently, wiU be known as a 
2-ply 84s. 

Folded Yams of Different Counts. — ^Although not a common 
practice, in some cases, especially when it is desired to make a 
fancy yam, two yarns of different counts are folded and some- 
times two yarns of different materials. 

Suppose, for illustration, that it is desired to find the resultant 
counts of a 40s cotton folded with a 203 cotton. Take as a 
basis 840 yd. of each yarn; then 840 yd. of the 40s weighs :^ lb. ; 
840 yd. of the 20s weighs^ lb. Consequently, after these yams 
are folded, there will be 840 yd. of a ply yam the weight of 
whichis5ny+5V = A lb. 

The example now resolves itself into the following: What 
are the counts of a yarn 840 yd. of which weighs £s lb? Since 
length divided by (weight times standard) equals c ounts, then, 

840 

= 13.33s, counts of the ply yam. 

AX840 

This example has been worked out to some length in order 
that the method of ntunbering ply yams may be thoroughly 
understood. A shorter method, hov/ever, is as follows : 

Rule — To find the resultant count when two threads of different 
numbers are folded, multiply the two counts together and divide the 
result thus obtained by the sum of the counts. 

Example. — Same as previous example. 

40X20 

Solution. — = 13.33s, counts 

40+20 

Ply Yarns Composed of More Than Two Threads. — In many 
cases it will be necessary to find the counts of a ply yarn made 
from more than two single threads, when a somewhat different 
process must be folllowed. For example, suppose that three 
single threads — 24s, 36s, and 72s, respectively — are folded to 
form a ply yam and it is required to ascertain the counts of the 
resultant yarn. This may be done by following the rule pre- 
viously given and performing two operations as follows: 



38 YARN CALCULATIONS 

First find the counts of the yam that would result from 
folding the 24s with the 38s as follows: 

24X36 

= 14.4s 

24+36 

The example then resolves itself into the following: What 

are the counts of a ply yam made from one thread of 14.4s and 

one of 72s? 

14.4X72 
= 12s 

14.4+72 

A somewhat shorter method than this may be applied to 3 
or more ply yarns made from different counts. 

Rule. — Take the highest counts and divide it by itself and by 
each of the other counts. Add the results thus obtained and 
divide this result into the highest counts. 

Note. — ^Although it is common practice to use the highest 
counts as a dividend, this is not absolutely esssential, as any 
counts, or in fact any number, may be used as the dividend 
and the correct answer obtained. 

ExAMPi-E. — Same as given previously. 
Solution. — 72 -=-72 = 1 

72 --36 = 2 
72 :-24 = 3 
6 
72^6 = 12s 
Rule. — To find the resultant counts when more than one end of 
the different counts are folded, divide the highest counts by itself 
and by each of the other counts. Multiply the result in each case 
by the number of ends oftliat counts. Add the results thus obtained 
and divide this result into the highest counts. 

Example. — 4 ends of 80s and 3 ends of 60s are folded to 
form a ply yam; what are the resultant counts? 
Solution.— 80-^80=1; 1 X4 = 4 

80^60=U; 11X3 = 4 
8 
80-4-8= 10s, resultant counts 
When dealing with ply yams it often becomes necessary to 
find the counts of a yam to be folded with another to produce 
a given counts. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 39 

Rule. — Multiply the two counts together and divide by iheir 
difference. 

Example. — ^What counts must be fofded with a 50s to pro- 
duce a ply yam equal in v/eight to a 30s? 

50X30 

Solution. — = 75s 

50-30 

Proof. — ^What are the counts of a ply yam made by twisting 

a 50s with a 75s? 

50X75 

= 30s 

50+75 

Another calculation is that of finding the required weight of 
each thread folded in order to produce a required weight of the 
ply yam. 

Rule. — Find the counts resulting from folding the two or more 
threads; then, as the counts of one thread is to the resultant counts 
so is the total weight to the weight required of that thread. 

Example. — It is desired to produce 100 lb. of a ply yam com- 
posed of an 80s and a 32s twisted together; what will be the 
required weight of the 80s and also of the 32s? 

80X32 

Solution, — = 22.85s, resultant counts 

80+32 

32:22.85-100:* 

100X22.8.S 

x = = 71.40 lb. of 32s 

32 

80:22.85 = 100::x; 

100X22.85 

x= = 28.56 lb. of 80s 

80 

In a case similar to the example given above, after the weight 

of one thread has been obtained, it is of course only necessary 

to subtract that weight from the total weight in order to obtain 

the weight of the other thread; or, in case more than two 

threads are folded, then the weight of one of these threads may 

always be obtained by subtracting the combined weight of the 

other threads from the total weight of the ply yam. 

Note. — In the previous example the weight of the 80s yam 
plus the weight of the 32s yam should equal the weight of 
the ply yam, but owing to the use of decimals, examples of 
this kind seldom give exact results. Thus, 71.40 lb. +28.56 lb. 
= 99.96 lb.; whereas the total weight should be 100 lb. - 



40 YARN CALCULATIONS 

Althougti the preceding rule states the logical method of 
solving examples of this character, a short-cut method of finding 
the weight of the single yams in any given weight of ply yam 
is as follows: 

Rule. — Divide any count by itself and 6y each of the other 
counts; add the quotients thus obtained and divide their sum into 
the total weight of the ply yarn. The final result is the weight of 
that component yarn the counts of which was used as a dividend. 

Calculation of Cost of Ply Yarns — If the price of each yam is 
given and it is required to find the price per pound of the resul- 
tant yam, it becomes necessary to multiply the weight of each 
count of yam by its price, add the results, and divide by the 
total weight. The answer will be the price per pound of the 
ply yam. 

Example. — If in the example previously given, the 80s yam 
is worth 72c per pound and the 32s is worth 480 per pound, what 
■will be the cost per pound of the ply yam? 

Solution. — 

71.40 lb. of 32s at 48c per lb. = $34.27, cost of the 32s yam 

28.56 lb. of 80s at 72c per lb. = $20.56, cost of the 80s yam 
- $34.27+$20.56 = $54.83, total cost of ply yam 

$54.83-;- 100 = 54.8c per lb., cost of the ply yam 

Another rule for finding the price of 2-ply yams when the 
threads to be twisted together are of different values and dif- 
ferent counts is as follows: 

Rule. — Multiply the highest counts by the price of the lowest 
counts and the lowest counts by the price of the highest. Add the 
results thus obtained and divide this result by the sum of the 
counts. The answer will be the price of the ply yarn. 

Example. — ^A 32s yam costs 42c per pound and a 16s yam 
costs 18c per pound; what will be the cost per pound of a ply 
yarn restdting from twisting these two? 

Solution. — 32x$.18 = $5.76; 16X$.42 = $6.72 
$5.76-f$6.72 = $12.48; 32-f 16 = 48 
$12.48-^48 = 26c. 

PLY YARNS OF SPUN SILK 

The numbering of ply yams made from spun silk will be found 
to differ somewhat from the methods previously explained. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 41 

Thus, when numbering silk ply yarns, the counts resulting after 
folding the yams is given and this number is followed by the 
number that indicates how many threads are folded. 

For example, 60/2 spun silk indicates that two threads of 
I2O3 have been folded together. Thus, it will be seen that the 
actual counts of the ply yam are given instead of the counts 
of the single yam, as is the case in cotton, woolen, and worsted 
ply yams . 

Example 1.— What is the weight of 642,000 yd. of a 40s 

2-ply sun silk? 

642,000 

Solution.— =19.107 lb. 

40X840 

Explanation. — 40s 2-ply spun silk is equal in weight to a 
single thread of 40s. Consequently, 40 should be considered 
as the counts of the ply yam when finding weight or length. 
Since length divided by (counts times standard) equals weight, 
the solution given must be correct. 

Example 2. — What is the length of 20 lb. of a 30s 2-ply 
spun silk? 

Solution.— 840X30X20 = 504,000 yd. 

Explanation. — A 30s 2-ply spun silk is equal in weight to 
a single 30s; consequently, 30 should be considered as the 
counts of the ply yarn. Since standard times counts times 
weight equals length, 840X30X20 must equal the length of 
the yarn. • 

Example 3. — What are the counts of a 2-ply silk yam if 
352,800 yd. weighs 10 lb.? 

352,800 

Solution. — = 42s 2-ply 

10X840 

Explanation. — The counts of the 2-ply yam would be 
indicated as follows: 42/2 spun silk, which shows that two 
ends of 84s have been twisted to make the ply yam. 

PLY YARNS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS 

In all cases where threads of different materials are twisted 
together, in order to perform any of the calculations previously 
explained, it becomes necessary first to place these counts in 
the same system of numbering yarnd. 



42 YARN CALCULATIONS 

Example. — A 36s cotton and a 48s worsted are twisted to 
form a ply yam; what are the counts of the resultant yam? 

Solution. — It is first necessary to ascertain in which system 

the resultant yarn should be placed. In this case the counts 

of the ply yam will be found in both the worsted and cotton 

systems. In the first case, then, to find the worsted counts 

of the ply yam resulting from twisting these two yams it is 

necessary to find the equivalent counts of the 36s cotton in 

the worsted system. 

36X840 

= 54s 

560 

The 36s cotton is found to equal a 54s worsted, so that the 

question resolves itself into the following: What are the counts 

-of a ply yam resuJting from twisting a 54s worsted and a 48s 

worsted? 

54X48 

■ — = 25.41, worsted counts of the ply yam 

54+48 

Since in this example it is also required to find the counts 

of the ply yam in the cotton system, it is therefore necessary 

first to find the equivalent counts of the 48s worsted in cotton. 

48X560 

= 32s 

840 

Having placed the 48s worsted in the cotton system, treat 

the worsted as if it were cotton and. find the counts of a ply 

yam that will result from folding a 32s and a 36s cotton. 

32 X 36 

= 16.94, cotton counts of the ply yam 

32+36 

Prom this it is seen that if a 36s cotton and a 48s worsted 

are twisted together, the counts of the resultant ply yarn will 

be either 25.41s worsted or 16.94s cotton. 



BEAMED YARNS 

Warp yam before being woven into cloth is placed on what 
are known as loom beams, a large number of ends of the same 
length being placed on one beam. The calculations necessary 
in connection with the yam on a beam will be found to be 
similar to those used in connection with the length, weight. 



YARN CALCULATIONS 43 

and counts of single ends, the difference being that in the 
previous cases only a single end was dealt with and in the case 
of beamed yams a large number of ends must be taken into 
consideration. Thus, for example, if each end on a beam is 
1,000 yd. long and there are 2,000 ends, then there must be 
2,000X 1,000 = 2,000,000 yd. of yam. This point should always 
be taken into consideration when dealing with yam placed on 
a beam. 

Rule. — To find the counts of the yarn on a beam containing 
only one size oj yarn, the weight, length, and nnmher of ends 
being given, multiply the length, expressed in yards,' by the num- 
ber of ends on the beam, and divide the result thus obtained by 
the weight, expressed in pounds, times the standard number of 
yards to the pound. 

Example. — ^A warp beam contains 2,400 ends of cotton each 

200 yd. long. The weight of this yam is 15 lb.; what are the 

counts? 

200X2,400 

Solution. — ■ -= 38.095s 

15X840 

Explanation. — Since there are 2,400 ends and each end is 
200 yd. long, there must be 2,400X200 = 480,000 yd. in all. 
The question then resolves itself into finding the counts of a 
yarn 480,000 yd. of which weighs 15 lb. Since length, in 
yards, divided by (weight, in pounds, times standard) always 
equals counts, 480,000 divided by (15X840) must give the 
counts. 

In some cases the weight given will be found to include 
not only the weight of the yam but also that of the beam on 
which the yam is placed. When this occurs, it is necessary first 
to deduct the weight of the beam from the weight given, in 
order to obtain the true weight of the yam. 

Rule. — To find the number of ends on a beam when weight, 
length of the warp, and size of the yarn are known, multiply the 
weight, in pounds, by the standard number and by the size of the 
yarn. Divide the result thus obtained by the length of the warp, 
in yards. 

Example 1. — A cotton warp is 1,200 yd. long and weighs 
200 lb. exclusive of the beam. If the warp is composed of 
20s yam, how many ends does it contain? 



44 YARN CALCULATIONS 

200X840X20 ^ ^^^ , 

Solution. — = 2,800 ends 

1,200 

Rule. — 20 find the weight of yarn on a beam when length, 
number of ends, and counts are given, multiply the length, expressed 
in yards, by the number of ends on the beam, avd divide the result 
thus obtained by the standard number of yards times the counts 
of the yarn. 

Example. — ^A beam contains 2,400 ends of 20s cotton, the 

warp being 500 yd. long; find the weight of the yarn. 

500X2,400 

Solution.— = 71.428 lb. 

840X20 

Explanation. — By multiplying the length of the warp by 
the total number of ends on the beam the total length of 
yarn on the beam is obtained; and since the length, expressed 
in yards, divided by the standard times the counts equals the 
weight, in pounds (2,400X500) -^ (840X20), will give the weight 
of the yarn on the beam. 

Rule. — To find the length of a warp when weight, number of 
ends, and size of the yarn are known, multiply the weight of the 
warp, in pounds, by the standard number and by the size of the 
yarn, and divide the result thus obtained by the number of ends 
in the warp. 

Example. — A cotton warp contains 2,400 ends of 18s yarn 

and weighs 200 lb. ; how long is it? 

200X840X18 

Solution.— = = 1 ,260 yd. 

2,400 

Rule. — To find the length of warp that can be placed on a 
beam, find the weight of yarn that the beam will contain, by 
weighing a beam of the same size when filled with yarn and 
deducting the weight of the beam itself. Then apply the rule 
previously given. 

Example 2. — A certain size beam when filled with yarn 
weighs 140 lb., the beam itself weighing 50 lb. What length 
of a warp composed of 1,800 ends of 20s cotton can be placed 
on it? 

Solution. — 140 - 50 = 90 lb . of yam 

90X840X20 

= 840 vd. 

1,800 



yarn calculations 45 

avera<;e numbers 

In case different counts of yams are placed on the same 
beam, as very frequently occurs, it will be found necessary 
to first find the average number, or average counts, of the 
different yarns before making other calculations. By the term 
average number, or average counts, is meant a count of yam that 
will give the same weight, provided that the same number of 
ends and the same length occur in both cases. Thus, if 400 
ends of 10s and 800 ends of 20s weigh a certain number of 
pounds, then 1.200 (400+800) ends of the average counts 
will weigh the same, provided that the ends are the same length 
In both cases. 

Rule. — To find the average counts of the ends on a beam when 
the ends are of different counts, divide the total number of ends 
of each count by its own count. Add these results together and 
divide the result thus obtained into the total number of ends in 
the warp. 

Example. — There are placed on the same beam 1,800 ends 
of 60s cotton and 800 ends of 40s cotton; what are the average 
counts? 

Solution.— 1800^ 60 = 30 

800 4- 40 = 20 
2 6 5 

2,600-r-50 = 52s, average counts 

In case more than two different counts are placed on the 
same beam, the same rule will be fovmd to apply. 

Example. — ^What are the average counts in case 200 ends 
of 20s, 1,000 ends of 40s, and 900 ends of 45s are placed on the 
same beam? 
Solution. — 200-^ 20 = 10 

1000-T-40 = 25 
900 -^ 45 = 2J) 

2 100 55 

2,100-5-55 = 38.18s, average counts 

In cases where the order of arranging the different counts of 
yam in the warp is given, the total number of ends in the warp 
not being known, the same rule will be found to apply by 



46 YARN CALCULATIONS 

considering the number of ends in the arrangement, or pattern, 
as the total number of ends. 

Example. — A warp is arranged 48 ends of 36s and 2 ends of 
10s; find the average number. 

Solution. — 48-^ 36 = 1.3 33 
_2 4- 10 = ^2 

5 1.5 3 3 

504-1.533 = 32.615s, average number 

If the yam is of different materials, such as cotton and worsted, 
then it is necessary first to place the different counts in the 
same system before applying the rule for finding the average 
number. 

Example. — ^There are placed on a beam 2,000 ends of 40s 
cotton and 450 ends of 45s worsted; what are the average 
counts in the cotton system? 

Solution. — ^First find the equivalent cotton counts of 45s 

worsted. 

45X560 

= 30s cotton 

840 

This example then resolves itself into finding the average 

counts of 2,000 ends of 40s and 450 ends of 30s. 

20004-40 = 50 

450 H- 30 = 15 

2450 65 

2,450 -i- 65 = 37.69s, average counts 

FANCY WARPS 

When more than one color of yam is placed on the same 
beam, it frequently becomes necessary to find the total number 
of ends of each color and the weight of each particular yam. 

In order fully to understand the explanations given in this 
connection it will be necessary first to consider a few terms 
that will frequently be met with. The yam that is placed on 
the loom beam is known as the warp, or warp yarn. It is 
this yam that forms the threads running lengthwise in the cloth 
and is thus distinguished from the yam running across the 
cloth, which is known as the filling. In case the warp yam is 
composed of difierent colors or different counts, the order in 



YARN CALCULATIONS 47 

which the different counts or colors are placed on the beam 
is known as the pattern of the warp. Thus, if the warp is 
arranged 4 ends of black, 4 ends of white, 4 ends of black, 
4 ends of white,- and so on across the cloth, the warp pattern 
is said to be 4 black, 4 white. 

To find the number of ends of each color of yam on a beam 
when the warp pattern and total number of ends are given, 
apply the following rule: 

Rule. — As the number of ends in one pattern is to the number 
of ends of any one color in the pattern, so is the total number of 
ends in the warp to the total number of ends of that color. 

Example. — The yam on a beam is arranged 16 ends black, 
8 ends white, 16 ends black, 8 ends gray, how many ends of 
each color are there if there are 2,400 ends on the beam? 

Solution. — 1 6 ends black 
S ends white 
1 6 ends black 
8 ends gray 

4 8 = total number of ends in one pattern. 

There are 32 ends of black in one pattern. 

Therefore, 48 : 32 = 2,400 : x 

32X2,400 

x = =1,600 ends of black 

48 

There are 8 ends of white in one pattern. 

Therefore, 48 : 8 = 2,400 : x 

8X2,400 

X = — = 400 ends of white 

48 

There are 8 ends of gray in one pattern. 

Therefore, 48 : 8 = 2,400 : jc 

8X2,400 

X — = 400 ends of gray 

48 

If it is desired to find the weight of the ends of each color, 

after having obtained the total number of ends of each color, 

apply the rule tor finding weight when length, counts, and 

number of ends are given. 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Definitions. — ^After the warp yam has been wound on the 
loom beam, the separate ends are drawn through the harnesses 
and afterwards through the reed. The warp is then ready to 
be placed in the loom. The harnesses are attached to mechan- 
isms that raise and lower them; and, since some of the harnesses 
are up while others are down, a division of the warp yam 
must necessarily take place. It is through the space formed 
by this division that the filling passes. This division of the 
ends is known as the shed, and as the harnesses change posi- 
tions, according to the weave desired, several different sheds 
are obtained. By this manner of interlacing, the cloth is 
formed. 

The threads of a cloth that run lengthwise of the piece, or 
the warp, are always spoken of as the ends, while those that 
run from side to side are known as the picks. A cloth is said 
to have a certain sley, which means that it contains so many ends 
per inch. It is also spoken of as being such a pick cloth, by 
which it is meant that the cloth has so many picks per inch. 
Thus, regular print cloth is said to be 64-sley and 64-pick, 
which means that the cloth contains 64 ends and 64 picks per 
inch; this is known as the counts of the cloth. When cloth 
contains the same number of ends per inch as picks it is spoken 
of as being so many square. Thus, the print cloth just referred 
to is known as 64 square. 

When specifying the counts of a cloth in writing, the number 
of ends per inch is always placed first and is followed by the 
multiplication sign after which the number of picks per inch 
is placed. Thus, if a cloth contains 80 ends and 60 picks per 
inch, it is written 80X60 and, in speaking of the counts of 
this cloth, it is said to be eighty by sixty. 

In speaking of the weight of cotton cloth, the number of 
yards in a pound is considered and the cloth is said to be a 
so many yard cloth. Thus, ordinary print cloth is spoken of 
as being a 7-yard cloth, which means that it takes 7 yd. of the 
cloth to weigh 1 lb. This method differs very materially from 
that in practice in the woolen and worsted trades, where a 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 49 

cloth is said to be a so many ounce cloth; that is, if a piece of 
cloth weighs 12 oz. to the yard it is said to be a 12-ounce cloth. 
This method of expressing the weight of woolen and worsted 
fabrics is also sometimes used for heavy cotton goods, such as 
duck. A second method of expressing the weight of duck 
fabrics is to consider the weight of a square yard; that is, a 
piece of duck weighing 7 oz. to the square yard, is spoken of 
as 7-ounce duck. 

A third method that is largely used in connection with sail 
ducks is arranged, or taken, from a standard duck, known as 
a No. 3 duck that weighs 16 oz., or 1 lb. for 1 yd. of cloth 
22 in. wide. For each ounce variation in the weight per yard, 
22 in. wide, the number is altered by 1 . Thus a No. 4 duck 
will weigh 15 oz., a No. 5 duck will weigh 14 oz; a No. 2 duck 
will weigh 17 oz.; and a No. 1 duck will weigh 18 oz. Duck 
fabrics heavier than the above are indicated thus: No. 1/0 
duck tAW weigh 19 oz.; No. 2/0 duck will weigh 20 oz.; No. 3/0 
duck will weigh 21 oz.; and so on. 

A linear yard is considered by the first method irrespective 
of width. A square yard is considered by the second method, 
and the weights of all other widths must be expressed in propor- 
tion to 36 in.; that is, a piece of duck 1 yd. long, 27 in. wide, 
weighing 5^ oz., would be spoken of as a 7-ounce duck because 
(Six 36) ^27 = 7 oz. per sq. yd. A duck 1 yd. long, 22 in. 
wide, is considered by the third method, and the weights of 
all other widths must be expressed in proportion to 22 in. 
in exactly the same manner as shown in the square-yard 
method. 

The other specifications necessary in reproducing a piece of 
cloth are the width, the counts of the warp yarn, and the 
counts of the filling. In giving these specifications they are 
shown as follows: 48X52 -36" -4. 15 yd. -18s warp -223 
filling. The counts of the warp and filling are sometimes 
written in the following form: 18s/22s. These specifications 
show that the cloth is 48-sley, 52-pick, 36 in. wide, 4.15 yd. 
to the pound, the warp being 18s, and the filling 22s. 



so 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 



HARNESS CALCULATIONS 

The harnesses consist of small wires, or in many cases, 
strong threads, known as heddles, near the center of which 
eyes are formed, through which the warp ends are drawn. 
Whenever a new warp is drawn in, it becomes necessary to 
find the number of heddles that must be placed on each har- 
ness, in order that there may be sufficient heddles for all the 
warp ends on the beam. In order to perform such a calcula- 
tion, the manner of drawing in the ends must be known. 
This is learned by consulting the drawing-in draft, which 
shows through which harness each end in one repeat of the 
draft is drawn. 

The accompanying illustration shows a drawing-in draft, 
since it indicates through which harness the separate ends are 



« '^ tS ,£ .« .d £'< < < 







. 






































































4 


























3 




3 














2 




2 




2 








2 










1 




I 




1 

















4th ZfaniMs 
3rd 

ist 

drawn. Each figure indicates through which harness one 
particular end is drawn; thus, the first end is drawn through the 
first harness; the second end through the second harness; the 
third end through the first harness; and so on through the 10 
ends that constitute one repeat of the draft. 

The necessary nvunber of heddles on any harness may be 
found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Find the number of repeats of the drawing-in draft in 
the warp by dividing the total number of ends in the warp by the 
number of ends in one repeat. Multiply the result by the number 
of heddles required on any harness for one repeat. The result 
will be the total number of heddles required on that harness. 

Example. — If a warp contains 2,400 ends and is drawn in 
according to the draft shown in the illustration, how many 
heddles should be placed on each harness? 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 51 

Solution. — 2400-5-10= 240 repeats of the pattern. 
240X 3= 720 heddles on first harness 
240X 4= 960 heddles on second harness 
2 4 OX 2= 4 8 heddles on third harness 
2 4 OX 1 = 240 heddles on fourth harness 
2400 
The drawing-in draft indicates that there are 3 ends drawn 
on the first harness, 4 ends on the second harness, 2 ends on 
the third harness, and 1 end on the fourth harness, in each 
repeat; hence, 240 repeats times 3 equals 720 heddles on first 
harness and so on. In all cases, a few extra heddles should 
be added to each harness in order to meet all additional 
requirements, for selvages, etc. 



REEDS 

The reed through which the ends are drawn after being 
drawn through the harnesses, plays a very important part, 
not only in the weaving, but also in all calculations connected 
with cloth. Reeds are made of thin, flat pieces of steel wire 
set into top and bottom pieces known as rihs. 

The space between two adjoining wires in the reed is known 
as a dent, and it is the number of these dents that the reed 
contains in an inch that determines the counts of the reed. 
Thus, for example, if a certain reed has 40 dents per inch, it 
is known as a 40s reed. In many cases, however, reeds are 
numbered by giving the ntmiber of dents in a certain number of 
inches. For example, a reed maj' be numbered 1,200-30, 
which indicates that it contains 1,200 dents in 30 in. It will 
be seen that in both of these cases the counts of the reed are the 
same. 

Reeds are also sometimes spoken of as being such a sley; 
thus, a reed may be said to be a 64-sley, which means that, 
with the ends of a warp drawn in two per dent, the cloth will 
contain 64 ends per inch. This does not indicate that there 
are 32 dents per inch in the reed, since on account of the con- 
traction that takes place during weaving, the yam at the reed 
is slightly wider than it is after it becomes a part of the cloth 



52 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

and, for this reason, the number of dents per inch is slightly 
less.v 

The first method, however, is the one generally used and 
ntimerous mills that previously used the other systems have 
adopted this method of ordering reeds with the required number 
of dents per inch. 

Reeds as sent out by the manufacturers are always marked 
by one of the methods indicated above; that is, either accord- 
ing to the number of dents per inch or the number of dents 
in so many inches. However, reeds are sold by the bier. 
The bier, as applied to reeds, means 20 dents; consequently, 
when the price per reed is quoted at so much per bier, it means 
so much for every 20 dents. 



CALCULATIONS FOR WARP YARN 

The first calculation necessary when dealing with cloth is 
to find the total number of ends in the warp when the width 
of the cloth and the ends per inch, or sley of the cloth, are given. 
It should be noted that at the sides of all cloths additional ends 
are placed in order to strengthen the fabric. These ends are 
known as the selvage ends, and it is always necessary to consider 
these. . They are generally ends like those of the body of the 
warp, where such ends are all alike, or like those forming the 
plain portion of a fancy cloth containing several varieties or 
counts of warp yam. However, they are usually reedeil with 
twice as many ends per dent as similar ends in the body of the 
warp; thus, if a warp is drawn in two per dent, for about J in. 
in width at each side the ends will be drawn in four per dent. 
Selvage ends are also drawn double, or two ends per heddle, 
wTien drawing them through the harnesses. In some cases, 
however, where an especially strong selvage is required, ply 
yams are used for selvage ends. Selvages are seldom over \ in. 
in width, and generally speaking, from 12 to 20 additional ends 
on each side will be found to be sufficient to allow for the 
selvages. 

The total ends in a cloth when the width and sley are given, 
may be found by the following rule: 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 53 

Rule. — Multiply the sley by the width and to the result thus 
obtained add a certain number of ends for selvages. 

Example. — Find the total number of ends in a cloth 36 in. 
wide, and containing 48 ends per inch. 

Solution. — 48 X 36 = 1,728 ends. Considering that 32 
ends, or 16 double ends, are required at each side for selvages, 
then 16 X 2 = 32 extra ends to be added, making 1,728+32 
= 1,760 ends in cloth. 

Contraction. — It is essential to take into account the con- 
traction of the warp that occurs during weaving. This con- 
traction affects both the length and width of the cloth; in con- 
nection with the warp yam it is only necessary to consider the 
contraction in the length. 

Since, in the interlacing of the filling with the warp, the 
two series of yams necessarily bend around each other to a 
certain extent, it naturally follows that a piece of cloth will 
not be quite as long as the warp from which it is made. This 
difference between the length of the warp yam and the cloth 
made from it is known as the contraction. 

The factors that will tend to affect the amount of contrac- 
tion that takes place are: The tension on the yam during 
weaving; the comparative counts of the warp and filling, since, 
if the warp is very much coarser than the filling, the filling 
will do most of the bending, while the warp yam will lie in a 
comparatively straight line; the class of weave, or, in other 
words, the manner of interlacing the warp and filling, since 
the warp yam will not contract so much in a weave where it 
interlaces with the filHng only once in five picks as it will in a 
weave where it interlaces at every pick. Weaves in which the 
warp yams are drawn entirely out of a straight Une, such as 
lenos, wiU contract the warp yam much more than will weaves 
in which the warp yams lie in a comparatively straight line. 

In practice, the actual percentage of contraction can be 
readily obtained by comparing the length of cut at the slasher 
with the length of cut after weaving. 

The weight of warp yam contained in a cut of any length 
may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the number of ends in the cloth by the length of 
the warp yarn in the cut before weaving, and divide by the standard 



54 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

number of yards per hank multiplied by the counts of the warp 
yarn. 

Example. — ^A cloth 36 in. wide having 48 ends per inch con- 
tains with the ends for selvages, 1,760 ends. Assuming that 
this cloth is woven 50 yd. long from 53 yd. of warp; what is the 
weight of the warp yam when the counts are 18s? . 

1,760X53 

Solution. — =6.169 lb. of warp yam 

840X18 

Allowance for Size. — One point that must be noted is that, 
before weaving, size is placed on the warp yam, which adds 
to its weight. The American custom of sizing yarn differs 
considerably from that in Europe, where size is often added for 
the purpose of weighting the cloth. In America, the prin- 
cipal use of size is to strengthen the warp yarn so that it wii.l 
withstand the strain and chafing that take place during weav- 
ing, and, for this purpose, the amount of si7.e added is very 
much smaller than that used when sizing for weight. 

If the percentage of size added were calculated from the 
weight of the cloth, the result would not be correct, since the 
size is added only to the warp yam and not to the filling. 
Therefore, this additional weight of size must be added to the 
weight of the unsized warp yam. Generally, it will be found 
that from 4% to 10% will cover all cases in America. If 
the warp yam in 50 yd. of cloth weighs 6.169 lb. and 6% of 
size is added ajt the slasher, then the weight of the sized warp 
yam in 50 yd. of cloth will be 6.169X1.06 = 6.54 lb.» nearly. 



CALCULATIONS FOR FILLING YARN 

Width at Reed. — ^When figuring the amount of filling that a 
cut of cloth contains, practically the same particulars are 
considered that affect the contraction of the warp. Thus, if 
a cloth is 36 in. ■wide, the space that the warp yam occupies 
in the reed, or, as it is known, the width at the reed, will be 
in excess of this width. Consequently, to find the exact 
length of each pick of filling, it is necessary to consider the 
width at the reed and not the width of the cloth. To find 
the width at the reed it is first necessary to ascertain the 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 55 

number of dents per inch in the reed or, in other words, the 
counts of the reed. 

The dents per inch in a reed to produce a cloth of a given 
sley may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Subtract 1 from the sley of the cloth, divide the result 
by the number of ends per dent, and multiply the result thus 
obtained by .95. 

Example. — If a cloth is 48 sley and is reeded 2 ends per dent, 
what counts of reed will be necessary to give this sley? 

Solution. — 

48-1 = 47 

4 7 -^ 2 = 2 3.5 

2 3.5 X .9 5 = 2 2.3 2 5, or say 22 dents per inch 

Explanation. — By always subtracting 1 from the sley of 
the cloth a sliding scale is obtained, which to a certain extent 
offsets the diiference in the contraction of different counts of 
yam. Thus, if the sley is 50 and 1 is subtracted, 2% is deducted 
whereas if the sley is 100 and 1 is subtracted, only 1% is 
deducted. Since there are 2 ends per dent, the sley m.ust be 
divided by this number in order to obtain the dents that are 
occupied by 1 in. of the warp as measured in the cloth. A 
safe estimate of the contraction that takes place when running 
medium counts of yams is 5%; therefore, the result obtained 
by dividing by 2 is multiplied by .95 in order to obtain the 
dents per inch. This percentage can be varied, however, to 
suit various circumstances. 

In many cases, also, the warp ends are drawn more than two 
per dent ttiroughout the reed. Under such circumstances it 
is always necessary to divide the result obtained by subtract- 
ing 1 from the sley by the number of ends to each dent. 

The width occupied by the warp yam in the reed, including 
selvages, may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Subtract the number of extra ends added for selvages 
from the total number of ends in the warp. Divide this result 
by the number of ends per dent and divide the result thus obtained 
by the number of dents per inch in the reed. 

Example. — If a cloth contains 1,760 ends, including 32 
extra ends added for selvages, and the ends are drawn 2 per 
dent in a 22s reed, what is the width at the reed? 



56 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Solution. — 

1,760-32 = 1,728 ends 

1 ,728 ^ 2 = 864 dents required for the warp 

■ 864-f-22 = 39.27 in., width at reed 

Explanation. — The 1,728 ends give the desired width in 
reed when drawn 2 ends per dent throughout. The 16 extra ends 
that are required for each selvage, or 32 extra ends in all, are 
simply drawn extra in the dents of the reed at each side of the 
fabric, making these dents contain 4 ends instead of 2 ends, 
as in the body of the warp. 

Finding the Weight of FiUing. — The weight of filling con- 
tained in a cloth of any length may be found by the following 
rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the width in the reed, in inches, by the num- 
ber of picks per incli. Multiply this result by the length of the 
cloth, in yards, and divide the result thus obtained by the number 
of yards to the hank multiplied by the counts of filling. 

Example. — ^What is the weight of filling yarn in 50 yd. of 

cloth that is 39.27 in. wide in the reed and contains 52 picks 

per inch of 22s yam? 

39.27X52X50 

Solution. — ■ = 5.525 lb. of filling 

840 X 22s 



WEIGHT OF CLOTH 

From the weights of warp and filling obtained the yards per 
pound can be ascertained by the following rules: 

Rule. — Add together the weights of warp and filling to find 
the weight of cut; then divide the length of cut by this weight, and 
the result will be the yards per pound. 

- Example. — The weight of sized warp yam is 6.54 lb.; the 
weight of filling is 5.525 lb.; the length of cut is 50 yd. Find 
the number of yards per pound. 

Solution.— Weight of 50-yd. cut is 6.54+5.525 = 12.065 lb. 
50-^ 12.065 = 4.15 yd. per lb., nearly. 

If it is desired to express the weight in ounces per yard instead 
of yards per pound the following rules apply: 

Rule I. — Multiply.the weight of cloth, in pounds, by 16 (pz. in 
1 lb.) and divide by the length of cloth. 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 57 

Example. — If 50 yd. of cloth weigh 12.065 lb.; what is the 

weight in ounces per yard? 

12.065X16 

Solution. — = 3.86 oz. per yd. 

50 

Rule II. — Divide 16 {ounces per pound) hy the yards per 
pound. 

Example. — A cloth weighs 4.15 yd. per pound; what is the 
weight expressed in ounces per yard? 

Solution. — 16 -r- 4. 15 = 3.86 oz. per yd. 



FIGURING PARTICULARS FROM CLOTH 
SAMPLES 

When a small sample of cloth is given from which to produce 
a similar cloth, the particulars that must be learned from it 
are the sley, pick, number of yards per pound, width of the 
goods, and the counts of warp and filling yarns. 

Sley and Pick. — In ordinary cases, the best method for finding 
the sley is to use a pick glass, or, in some cases, to cut out a 
small piece of cloth, say 1 or 2 in. square, pulling out the threads 
one by one and counting them and in this manner obtaining 
the number of ends per inch in the cloth. The same methods 
may be adopted to find the picks per inch. 

Yards per Pound. — The yards per pound can be found by 
weighing a small sample and applying the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply 7.0Q0 hy the number of square inches weiqhed 
and divide the result thus obtained hy the product of the weight, 
in grains, of the piece weighed, the width of the cloth, and 36 {the 
number of inches in 1 yd.) . 

Example. — ^A piece of cloth 3 in. square is found to weigh 
9 gr. ; what are the yards per pound if the cloth is 28 in. wide? 

Solution. — A piece of cloth 3 in. square contains 9 sq. in. 

7,000X9 

= 6.94, say 7 yd. per lb. 

9X28X36 

Width of Cloth. — The width of cloth is usually specified, 

the designer being furnished with only a small sample of the 

fabric. As a matter of fact, the selling agents of the mill, 

who usually submit the cloth sample, in most cases, also submit 



58 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

the sley, pick, yards per pound, and width of cloth, leaving 
the matter of counts of warp yam and counts of filling for the 
designer to determine. 

When not specified, the former items may be determined 
as explained, but the counts of the yams must always be 
ascertained. For instance, specifications are given for a 
standard print cloth as follows: 64X64 — 28 in. — 7 yd. With 
such specifications as these, the first step in determining the 
proper counts of warp and filling yams is to find the average 
counts of the cloth. 

Average Counts, — The average counts of the warp and filling 
yams in a fabric can be found by applying the following rule: 

Rule. — Add the sley and pick together and multiply the sum 
by 7,000 {gr. per lb.) and by the number of square inches weighed. 
Divide this result by the product of the yards per hank {840) , the 
inches per yard {36) , and the weight in grains of sample weighed. 

Example. — A piece of cloth 3 in. square is found to weigh 
9 gr., and contains 64 ends and 64 picks per inch. What is 
the average number of warp and filling in the fabric? 

Solution. — ^A piece of cloth 3 in. square contains 9 sq. in. 

(64+64) X 7,000X9 __ ^ , , 

=29.63 average counts of cloth 

840X36X9 

In this solution the contraction in length and width that takes 
place during weaving has not been considered, so that the 
actual average number of warp and filling is somewhat coarser 
than the result obtained. In all cases the warp length is greater 
than the cloth length, and the width in reed is greater than the 
vridth of cloth. No definite allowance can be made for this con- 
traction, because there are several factors that make it impos- 
sible to formulate a definite rule to suit all classes of fabrics. 

Counts of Warp Yam. — ^rom the average number, the 
counts of the warp yam to use is usually determined according 
to the class of fabric under consideration. Ordinarily the warp 
yam is a little coarser than the filling. However, in fabrics 
having a warp face, the warp yam is usually of finer counts 
than the filling, and in the case of filling-faced cloths the fill- 
ing is usually of finer counts than the warp. The counts of the 
warp are often decided on from the average number, that is, 
in cases where the counts of the warp and filling yams are 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS SO 

nearly equal, and then the counts of filling are found to pre- 
serve the yards per pound, as will be explained later. 

Another method, and perhaps the one most often used, to 
determine the counts of warp required to reproduce a fabric is 
to test the warp yam in the sample under consideration by 
comparing it with a known counts of yam. This is accom- 
plished by taking a number of warp threads, say 10, from 
the cloth sample, then take 10 threads of known counts of 
yarn of approximately the same counts as in the cloth sample, 
or as near as judgment v/ill allow; these threads need not be over 
3 in. long. Now loop them together as shown in (a) in the 
accompanying illustration and twist as shown in (ft). By 
careful examination of the two series of ends either by the 
naked eye or by means of a magnifying or pick glass it can be 

/O Threae/s of ^ /O Threads of 

/^g»y/7 Cou/rfs ) ( l/nknoyyn Counts 



(aj 

Known Cdunfs t/nAnovirn Counts 



ascertained whether both are of approximately the same size 
or not. Assuming in this case that the counts taken are 32s 
and that the unknown yam is found by the above comparison 
to be coarser than the known counts, then untwist the ends and 
take out one thread from the unknown series and twist them 
together again and so on until it is determined that both series 
are of the same size when twisted together. If the known yam 
was found to be coarser than the unknown, one thread at a 
time would be removed from the known counts until both 
series are of approximately the same size. Assuming that the 
above comparison shows that both series are of equal size 
when 9 threads of the tmknown yarn balance 10 threads of 
the known yam, the imknown must be coarser than the 
known in the ratio of 10 to 9. Then 10:9 = 32 : x; = and x will 
equal 28.8s counts of warp yam. The general custom in cotton 
nulls is to use the nearest cotmts of warp yam that is being 



60 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

produced in that mill, so in this case it will be assumed that 
30s warp yam is selected for the cloth sample vmder consideration. 
The preceding method is commonly used in actual practice 
in cotton mills and gives accurate results when the test is per- 
formed by an experienced person. Of course, a definite length 
of warp yam may be unravelled from the sample, weighed^ 
and the counts found in this manner. Even in such cases, 
however, it is customary to use a counts of yam for the warp 
that the mill is ordinarily spinning, if this is possible. 

Ends in Warp. — ^Having decided on the counts of warp yam 
to use, it is necessary to find the number of ends in the warp. 

Example. — ^How many ends in a piece of cloth 28 in. wide, 
and containing 64 ends per inch ? 

Solution. — 64 X 28 = 1 ,792 ends 

Considering that 28 ends, or 14 double ends, are reqviired at 
each side for selvages, then 14X2=28 extra ends are to be 
added, making 1,792 + 28 = 1,820 ends in warp. (See rule at 
top of page 46.) 

Weight of Warp Yam. — The weight of warp yam required 
to produce 50 yd. of cloth is found as follows: 

Example. — ^What weight of 30s warp yarn will be required 

for 50 yd. of cloth if 52.5 yd. of warp yam are necessary and the 

warp contains 1,820 ends? 

1,820X52.5 

Solution. — —=3.79 lb. of unsized warp yam 

840X30 

(See rule at bottom of page 46.) It will be assumed in this 

case that 4% of size is added to the warp yarUo Then the 

sized warp yarn will weigh 3.79X1.04 = 3.94 lb. 

Reed. — The ntunber of the reed is calculated according to 

the rule at top of page 48 as follows: 

64-1 = 63 

63-^2 = 31.5 

31.5 X. 95 = 29.925, say 30 dents per inch 

Width in Reed. — ^According to the rule at bottom of page 48, 

the width in reed may be found as follows: 

1,792-=- 2 (ends per dent) =896 dents 

896-^30 = 29.866, say 30 in. in reed 

Weight of Cut. — The weight of 50 yd. of cloth can be found 

by dividing the length of cloth by the yards per pound. Thus, 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS .61 

50 -i- 7 = 7. 14 lb. Since the weight of the warp yam is 3.94 lb., 
7.14-3.94 = 3.20 lb. of filling is required to produce 50 yd. of 
cloth. 

Counts of Filling. — The counts of filling to preserve the yards 
per pound can now be found by applying the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the width in reed, in inches, by the number 
of picks per inch and by the length of cloth, in yards. Divide 
this result by the number of yards per hank and the weight of 
filling. 

Example. — ^What are the counts of filling required to pre- 
serve the yards per pound when the width at reed is 30 in., 
the length of cloth 50 yd., the picks per inch 64, and the weight 
of filUng 3.20 lb.? 

30X64 VSO 

Solution. — ^^ — = 35.7, say 36s filling 

840X3.20 

Summary. — The maniifacturing data relative to the fabric 

dealt with in the preceding calculations may be stimmarized 

as follows: 

Sley and pick 64X64 

Width of cloth 28 in. 

Weight of cloth 7 yd. per lb. 

Length of cut ■ 50 yd. 

Counts of warp 30s 

Ends in warp , 1,820 

Weight of warp 3.79 lb. 

Reed 30 dents per in. 

Width at reed 30 in. 

Weight of filling 3.20 lb. 

Counts of filling 36s. 



FANCY WARP PATTERNS 

When the number of ends of each color, counts, or material 
in the warp of a fabric that contains a warp~ pattern must be 
ascertained, the following rule is applicable. 

Rule. — Divide the number of ends in the warp, exclusive of 
selvage ends, by the number of ends in one repeat of the warp 
pattern. This result and the number of ends of each color, etc., 
in the warp pattern should be multiplied. 



62 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Example. — The warp pattern of a striped gingham is 
arranged 12 white, 4 orange, 12 white, 4 blue ends; how many 
ends of each color will be required for a warp containing 
2,040 ends? 

Solution. — Assuming that 48 ends of white yam are to be 
used for selvages (12 double ends at each side of the fabric), 
the ends in the body of the warp inside selvages will be 2,040 
— 48 = 1,992 ends. In one repeat of this warp pattern there are 
24 white ends, 4 orange ends, and 4 blue ends, a total of 32 
ends per pattern. The repeats of the pattern in the warp 
are, therefore, 1,992 -f- 32 = 62 repeats and 8 ends over. In a 
case of this kind the 8 ends over full repeats of the pattern 
would be considered to be white ends as are also the selvage 
ends. The calculation of the ends of each color in the warp is, 
therefore, as follows: 

62X24+8+48 = 1,5 4 4 ends of white 
62 X 4 =248 ends of orange 

62X 4 =248 ends of blue 

2 4 ends in warp 

Note. — ^After the 12 double ends are drawn in for one 
selvage, 10 single white ends should be drawn through the 
harnesses. This will divide the 8 extra white ends and the 
first 12 white ends in the pattern, so as to allow 10 white 
ends to lie adjacent to each selvage. The pattern will then be 
balanced, as it should be in all fabrics that contain a warp 
pattern. 

If desired, the weight of each color, kind, or counts of warp 
yam may be found in the usual manner. 

IRREGULAR REED DRAFTS 

When the warp ends are drawn through the reed in an irregu- 
lar manner, as is often the case, a method slightly different 
from that previously described must be followed. Suppose, 
for instance, that a fabric contains the following warp pattern: 
40 ends of white, 40 ends of blue, 40 ends of white, and 20 
ends of blue. Assume, also, that the 40 ends of blue occupy 
exactly one-half as much space in the fabric as 40 ends of white 
and that the 20 ends of blue occupy a space equal to one-fourth 
of the space occupied l)y 40 ends of v/hite. It is apparent, 
in this case, that the blue ends are reeded vnth twice the number 
of ends per dent as the white ends, or, if the white ends are 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 63 

reeded 2 ends per dent, then the blue ends must be drawn 
4 ends per dent. Thus, the arrangement of this pattern is 
as follows: 

4 (white) -H 2 (ends per dent) = 20 dents 
4 (blue) -r-4 (ends per dent) = 10 dents 
4 (white) -f- 2 (ends per dent) =20 dents 
2 (blue) 4-4 (ends per dent) = 5 dents 

14 ends 5 5 dents 

Since* 40 ends of white are found to occupy exactly | in. 
in the fabric, it will be assumed that this fabric will be repro- 
duced with a reed that would give an 80-sley fabric if the 
ends were evenly reeded throughout the width of the cloth. 
If it is also assumed that the fabric is to be woven 30 in. wide, 
including selvages, the total number of dents is as follov/s: 

80 (sley)X30 (inches wide) 

— ; , ^-- ^ ^ = 1,200 dents 

2 (ends per dent) 

If 14 double ends or 28 single ends are allowed on each side 

for selvages, making 28 double ends or 56 single ends in all, 

and the selvages are drawn 2 double ends or 4 single ends per 

dent, 7 dents on each side or 14 dents in all will be occupied 

by the selvages. This will leave 1,200—14 = 1,186 dents for 

the warp ends forming the body of the cloth. Then, 1,186 

-;-53 (dents per pattern) =21 patterns and 31 dents over. The 

31 dents over full patterns will accommodate 40 ends of white 

(20 dents), 40 ends of blue (10 dents), and leave one extra 

dent which would best be filled with 2 white ends. The 

pattern, therefore, may be balanced in the cloth as follows: 



Ends 


Dents 


28 


7 


20 


10 



•21 times 2,9 4 1,15 5 



14 white double ends, 2 double ends per dent. 

20 white ends, 2 ends per dent 

40 blue ends, 4 per dent 
40 white ends, 2 per dent 
20 blue ends, 4 per dent 
40 white ends, 2 per dent 

40 blue ends, 4 per dent 40 10 

22 T/hite ends, 2 per dent 22 11 

14 white double ends, 2 double ends per dent . 2 S 7 

Total 3078 1200 



64 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Since there are 60 blue ends per pattern, 21 patterns, and 40 
blue ends ^.dditional, there are 60X21+40=1 ,300 blue ends, and 
as the total number of ends is 3,078, there are 3,078-1,300 
= 1,778 white ends. 

CONTRACTION IN LENO AND LAPPET 
FABRICS 

The doup ends in leno fabrics and the lappet ends in 
cloths constructed on the lappet principle are greatly deflected 
from a straight line and hence, are much longer than the 
ground ends that form the body of the cloth; the amount of 
contraction in the weaving of these ends must, therefore, be 
accurately determined. The best method of ascertaining the 
relative length of doup ends or lappet ends as compared with 
the ground ends of a fabric is to remove from a sample of the 
cloth one or more of the doup ends or the lappet ends, as the 
case may be, and then compare the length of the end or ends 
removed with the length of the cloth sample. For instance, 
suppose that several doup ends are removed from a sample of 
leno fabric 9 in. in length, and are found to be exactly 11 in. 
long. In this case, it is evident that whatever the length of 
cloth to be woven, the doup ends must be longer than the cloth 
length in the ratio of 11 to 9. For example, if 100 yd. of cloth 
must be woven, the length of the doup ends must be 

100X11 

= 1221 yd. 

9 

In some leno fabrics, the ground ends, around which the 
doup ends are crossed, are deflected from a straight line as weU 
as the doup ends. In such cases they should be treated exactly 
like doup ends, as previously explained. 

As a further illustration of this principle, assume that several 

lappet ends are removed from a piece of cloth 4| in. long and 

are found to measure 28i in. In this instance, whatever length 

of cloth is taken, the lappet ends must exceed the cloth length 

in the ratio of 28i to 4|. Thus, for 100 yd. of cloth, the length 

100X281 
of each lappet end Vvill be = 633^ yd. If two or more 

42 

sets of doup ends are used in a fabric each set interlacing 



i 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 65 

differently, or if two or more sets of lappet ends are employed 
in the fabric, each set having a different trailer pattern; then 
each set must be considered separately when finding the length 
of yam reqtiired. In all cases where two or more systems of 
warp yam are used, the warp length required of each system 
may be ascertained in the manner explained. 



FANCY FILLING PATTERNS 

To ascertain the weight of each color, kind, or material of 
filling yam, the method of procedure is very similar to that 
employed for finding similar data relating to warp yams. 
The ntunber of picks of each color or kind of filling in one repeat 
of the filling pattern is ascertained first, and then the picks per 
inch or relative proportion, of each color or kind, etc., is found, 
after which the weight of each may be determined in the 
ordinary manner. 

Example. — The filling pattern of a gingham fabric is 
arranged 12 picks of white, 4 picks of orange, 12 picks of white 
and 4 picks of blue. If the width in reed is 30 in., counts of 
filling yam 36s, and picks per inch 68, what weight of each color 
of filling yam will be required to weave 100 yd. of cloth? 

Solution. — In one repeat of the filling pattern there are 24 
picks of white, 4 picks of orange, and 4 picks of blue, making a 
total of 32 picks in the pattern. In the filling, therefore, §f of 
the yam is white, #^ is orange and ^2 blue. Applying the rule 
given on page 49 , the total weight of the filhng yarn in 100 yd. 
of cloth is found as follows: 

30X68X100 

= 6.746 lb. 

840X36 

Then the weight required of each color of filling will be 

6.746 XM = 5 . 6 lb. white 
6.746X^= . 8 4 3 lb. orange 
6.746X^= ■ 8 4 3 l b. blue. 
6.7461b. 

The example may be solved to find the weight of each color 
in one operation as follows: 



66' CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

30X68X100X24 ^ _ ,^ ,. 

= 5.06 lb. white 

840X36X32 

30X68X100X4 

= .843 lb. orange 

' 840X36X32 

30X68X100X4 ^^^ ,^ ^^ 

= .843 lb. blue 

840X36X32 

5.06 + .843 + .843 = 6.746 lb. weight of filUng 

In some fabrics the filling yam is not only of different colors, 
kinds, or materials, but also of different counts; and, in some 
cases, there may be more picks of certain kinds of filling yam 
in a given space than of other kinds. In such cases the calcula- 
tions for finding the weight of each kind or color of filling yam in 
a given length of cloth must of necessity dift'er from those 
already dealt with. For illustration, suppose that in a certain 
fabric the filKng pattern is arranged 12 picks of blue, 24 picks 
of white, 12 picks of tan and 24 picks of white. It will be 
assumed, also, that a 50-yd. cut of cloth is to be produced and 
the width in the reed is 30 in. On examination of the fabric it 
is found that the counts of the different kinds of filling yam and 
the space occupied by each in one repeat of the filling pattern 
are as follows: 

Counts Space Occupied 

1 2 blue 36s i in. 

2 4 white 24s J in. 

1 2 tan 40s | in. 

2 4 white 24s \ in. 

7 2 picks in pattern \\ in. 

The average picks in 1 in. of each color may be found by 

simple proportion. There are 48 picks of white in 1\ in., 

48X1 
which equals = 38.4 picks of white filling per inch. 1 here 

12X1 

are 12 picks of blue filling in Ij in., which equals = 9.6 

picks of blue filling per inch. There are also 9.6 picks of tan 
filling per inch. 

The weight of each color of filling yam can now be found by 

applying the rule on page 53, thus: 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 67 

38.4X30X50 

= 2.857 lb. of 24s filling (white) 

840X24 

9.6X30X50 

= .476 lb. of 36s filling (blue) 

840X36 

9.6X30X50 

= .428 lb. of 40s filling (tan) 

840X40 



MISCELLANEOUS SHORT RULES FOR 
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Average Counts of Cloth. — The average number of yarn in a 
cloth of ordinary construction may be found by the following 
rule: 

Rule. — Add the sley and the pick together; multiply this 
result by the width and the result thus obtained by the yards per 
pound and divide this result by 760. The answer will be the 
average number of the yarns. 

In this rule the standard 760 has been used instead of the 
ordinary standard 840, in order to make allowances for the 
contraction in length and width during weaving and for the 
size placed on the warp yam. This constant will be found 
applicable to usual cases, but may be varied at will to suit any 
special range of fabrics. 

Example. — It is desired to find the average number of a 
cloth containing 60 ends and 66 picks per inch, the cloth being 
30 in. wide and weighing 5 yd. per lb. 

Solution.— 60+66 = 126; 126X30 = 3,780 
3,780X5 = 18,900; 18,900 4- 760 = 24.8s, average ntunber 

Counts of Filling to Preserve Weight of Cloth. — ^Another rule 
that wiU be found accurate for cloths of ordinary construction 
is to find the counts of filling required to preserve the weight of 
the cloth when the average number of the yams in the cloth and 
the counts of the warp are known. 

Rule. — Add the sley and the pick together and divide by the 
average number. Divide the sley by the counts of the warp. 
Subtract the result obtained in the second instance from the result 
obtained in the first and divide the result thus obtained into the 



68 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

picks per inch. The answer will be the counts of the filling 
required. 

Example. — ^With the particulars the same as in the preceding 
example and taking 22s as the counts of the warp, find the 
counts of filling required to be used to preserve the weight of the 
cloth. 

Solution.— 60+66 = 126; 126-^24.8 = 5.08 
60 H- 22 = 2.72; 5.08-2.72 = 2.36 

66 ^2.36 = 27.96s, counts of filling required to preserve 
weight. 

Average Counts of Filling. — ^When the filling contains differ- 
ent counts of yam, the average counts of the filling may be 
found by the same method used to find the counts of filling 
required to produce cloth of a given weight. Then, with 
the counts of one of the kinds of filling known, find the counts 
of the other filling required to produce cloth of the given 
weight. 

Rule. — Divide the total number of picks in the pattern by the 
average counts of the filling. Also divide the number of picks of 
the known counts of filling by its counts. Subtract the result 
obtained in the second instance from the result obtained in the 
first, and divide the difference into the number of picks of the 
unknown counts. 

Example. — A piece of cloth, 64X64, is 27 in. wide, and has 
the warp and filling arranged 46 ends of fine and 3 ends of 
cord. The coimts of the fine yam in the warp are 30s and of 
the cord 10s. If the cloth weighs 6.4 yd. to the pound, what 
counts of fine filling must be used to preserve the yards per 
pound? 

Solution. — First find the average counts of the warp. 

46-5-30=1.53 

3-^10= .30 

49 1.83 

49 -^ 1.83 = 27s, nearly, average counts of warp. 

Next find the average counts of warp and filling. 

64+64 = 128 

128X27X6.4 

= 29.1 03s, average counts of warp and filhng. 

760 



CLOTH CALCULATIONS 69 

Next find the average counts of filling. 

64+64 = 128; 128-^29.103=4.398 
64-^27 = 2.37; 4.398-2.37 = 2.028 
64 -^ 2.008 = 31 .558s, average counts of filling 

The question nov/ is to find the counts of the cord and the 
fine yam in the filling to preserve the yards per pound, the 
average counts of the filling and the arrangement of the yam 
in the filling being known. In cases of this kind it would be 
unlikely that a mill would employ different counts of cord in 
both warp and filling, consequently it would be safe to assume 
the counts of the cord in the filling to be the same as that in the 
warp, after which it wotdd only be necessary to find the counts 
of the fine filling. 

49 -T- 31 .558 = 1.552 

_34-10 = .300 

46 1.252 

46 ^- 1.252 = 36.741s, counts of fine filling 

Warp Contraction. — The percentage to allow for warp con- 
traction during weaving may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the number of picks per inch by 3 and divide 
by the counts of the fdUng. The result will be the percentage to 
allow for contraction. 

Example. — The number of picks per inch in a certain cloth 

is 60, the counts of the filling are 36s; what will be the length 

of the cloth made from 100 yd. of warp yam? 

60X3 

Solution. — = 5, percentage to allow for contraction. 

36 

5% of 100 = 5; 100 yd. -5 yd. = 95 yd. of cloth. 

This rule, when taking into consideration the points pre- 
viously mentioned, is comparatively accurate for counts of 
filling from 25s to 50s and for picks from 40 to 80 per in. and 
will serve as a basis when finding the contraction of any warp. 

By varying the constant 3 to suit special circumstances rules 
can be formulated to suit requirements; or if the usual rate of 
contraction in a certain mill on certain goods is found, it will not 
be difficult to form a good idea of the contraction in other 
cloths. 



70 CLOTH CALCULATIONS 

Weight of Warp Yam. — The weight in ounces of warp yam 
per yard of cloth may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Mzdiiply the counts of the yarn by 105 and divide into 
twice the number of ends in the warp. 

Example. — ^A cotton warp contains 2,100 ends of 30s yam; 

what is the weight per yard? 

2,100X2 

Solution. — = If oz. 

105X30 

Weight of Filling Yarn. — The weight in ounces of filling yam 
per yard of cloth may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the width by the picks per inch and by 2 and 
divide by 106 times the counts of the yarn. 

Example. — ^What is the weight of filling in a yard of cloth 

28 in. wide if it contains 75 picks per inch of 40s cotton yam? 

28X75X2 

Solution. — = 1 oz. 

105X40 

Hanks of Warp Yarn. — The hanks of warp yam per cut of 
cloth may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Muttiply the ends in the warp by the length of the warp 
yarn before weaving and divide by Slfi. 

Example. — ^A cloth contains 1,680 warp ends and 55 yd. of 

warp are required to produce a 50-yd. cut of cloth. How many 

hanks of warp yam are required? 

1,680X55 , , 

Solution. — =110 hanks 

840 

Hanks of Filling Yarn. — The hanks of filling yam per cut of 
cloth may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the width in the reed, in inches, by the number 
of picks per inch. Multiply this result by the length of the cloth, 
in yards, and divide the result thus obtained by the number of yards 
to the hank. 

Example. — It is desired to learn how much filling there will 
be in a 50-yd. cut of cloth reeded 26| in. wide and containing 
90 picks per inch. 

Solution.— 26| X 00 = 2.400 

2,400X50 

= 142.85 hanks 

840 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 71 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

In the mantifacture of cotton yams a principle is adopted 
that must be considered in connection with abnost every pro- 
cess from the opening of the raw cotton to and including the 
spinning of the yam — ^that known as drafting. In the cotton- 
mill business the term drafting refers to the principle of attenu- 
ating, or drawing out, a comparatively large mass of cotton 
fibers into a thinner but longer mass. This may be done by 
means of air-currents, by which the fibers are separated one 
from the other and carried along by a current of air and depos- 
ited on rotating screens delivering the sheet of cotton at a higher 
speed than that at which it is fed into the machine; it may be 
performed by rapidly-rotating cylinders and rolls covered with 
wire teeth, which elongate the mass of fibers even to the extent 
of separation, depositing them again at a given rate on a con- 
denser, or doffer; or it may be, and most frequently is, per- 
formed by means of revolving rolls. It is to the principles of 
drafting by means of successive pairs of revolving rolls that 
most frequent reference will be made. 

Objects of Drafting. — In attenuating, or drawing out, a 
mass of cotton, there are three principal objects: the first is to 
reduce the lap, sliver, or roving to a less weight per yard , that is, 
attenuating it gradually to the desired degree of fineness; the 
second object is that of arranging and improving the arrange- 
ment of the fibers in a parallel order so that they may lie side 
by side and overlap one another; the third object is that of 
evening the strand of fibers to eliminate thick or thin places, 
which is done by a combination of drafting and doubling. The 
use of successive pairs of drawing rolls is largely adopted to 
arrive at these results. This principle is made use of in most 
cotton-yam-preparation machines by having carefully con- 
structed and adjusted rolls, the rear ones holding the mass of 
fibers and running at a slow speed, the forward ones tightly 
gripping a portion of the fibers and revolving at a greater speed. 
This arrangement is duplicated again and again, until in some 
machines there are as many as four pairs of rolls successively 
acting on the fibers. The qui ckly- rotating pair of rolls draws 



72 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

the fibers away from the slowly-rotating rolls, and as the fibers 
are gripped by their fore ends and pulled forwards, the loose 
rear ends trail behind and tend to become straightened out as 
they are drawn from the portion held by the slowly-rotating 
rolls. 

Doubling. — The attenuating and parallelizing of the mass 
of fibers tends to reduce its thickness and make a thin sheet 
or strand where there was formerly a thick one, and if continued 
indefinitely would result in destroying the continuity of the 
sliver or roving. To prevent this, doubling is resorted to in most 
of the cotton-yam-preparation machines. Briefly explained, 
this means that, instead of feeding only one lap, sliver, or 
roving at the back of each machine, two or more are fed 
together, making one at the front; this not only helps to 
compensate for the excessive attenuation, but has the great 
advantage of helping to correct unevenness in the original 
mass of fiber fed to the machine. By feeding several together 
the thick or thin places of any one are combined with other 
slivers of normal size, or thick places with thin ones, and the 
combination of two, three, four, five, or six independent slivers 
or rovings, which are drawn out into one, results in an even- 
ness not attainable in any other manner. Draft refers to the 
ratio of attenuation, and drafting refers to the attenuation only, 
ha^'ing no reference to the parallelizing or evening features 
mentioned. 



DRAFTING WITH COMMON ROLLS 

A section though four pairs of rolls is represented in the 
accompan>dng illustration, the lower rolls a, b, c, d, being con- 
structed of steel and fluted longitudinally. The upper rolls 
ax, bi, ci, di, are constructed of iron with a covering of flarmel 
immediately around them, and a thin leather covering outside 
of the flannel. These rolls are not fluted, and are pressed 
against the bottom rolls by means of weights. The rolls d, di 
between which the material is fed should always be spoken 
of as the feed-rolls or back rolls, the roll di being distinguished 
from the roll d by the term back top roll. The roUs delivering 
the material, represented by a and ai, should always be spoken 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 



73 



of as the delivery rolls or front rolls, the roll oi being called 
the front top roll. The first pair of intermediate rolls, is 
spoken of as the second pair of rolls; and the third pair, as 
the third pair of rolls. Thus, the roll a is the front, or delivery 
roll; b, is the second roll; c, the third roll; and d, the back roll, 
or feed-roll. 




The circumferential speed of the upper and lower roll in 
each pair, is the same; that is, a point on the surface of d moves 
at the same speed as a point on the surface of Ji, because di is 
driven by frictional contact with d. The same remarks apply 
to any other pair in the series. 

The back roll, which "is the feed-roll, always rotates at the 
slowest speed and the front roll at the highest, the speed of 
the other rolls being so arranged that c revolves a little more 
quickly than d, and b still more qmckly than c, but at a less 
speed than a. The direction of rotation of the rolls is shown by 
a small arrow within the section of each. 

Between d and di, a riVjbon of cotton is fed and is carried 
forwards, as shown, between each pair of rolls, until it emerges' 
at the front. The upper rolls are weighted in such a manner 
as to firmly grip the fibers that pass below them, and thus if the 
si)aces between the centers of each pair of rolls are properly 
adjusted and the relative speeds of the rolls accurately arranged, 
the principle of drawing the fibers past one another by m.eans of 
a firm grip of their fore ends, the rear ends trailing behind, is 
achieved. The same conditions continuously exist in the 
machine, because as the forward rolls pass fibers forwards, 
the rear rolls are supplying new ones, and the results are thus 
comparatively even and regular. 



74 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

The illustration shows the gradual attenuation or reduction 
in size of the mass of cotton, owing to the increased speed 
of each pair of rolls over the. preceding pair. It will be seen 
that if the surface speed of the back roll is 60 in. per min. and 
that of the front roU 360 in., the sliver emerging from the front 
roll will be six times as long and consequently one-sixth as 
coarse, i. e., of one-sixth the weight per unit of length, as 
when entering the back roll. 

The arrangement just described is only one of many found 
in cotton-yam-preparation machinery and is merely given as 
an example. Draft could be produced between only two pairs 
of rolls almost contiguous; again, these two rolls, known as the 
feed-roll and delivery roll, respectively, might have between 
them a large number of other rolls, or a number of cylinders or 
rollers, or other means of producing draft, but the draft would 
be computed between the feed-rolls and the delivery rolls if the 
total draft were desired. 

Methods of Finding Draft. — Draft is the ratio of the speed 
of the delivery to that of the feed part of a machine. It indi- 
cates the ratio between the surface speed of the front, or 
delivery, roll and the surface speed of the back, or feed, roll, 
and may be found in different ways, as follows: 

1. By dividing the space moved through in a given time by a 
point on the surface of the feed-roll, into the space moved 
through in the same time by a point on the surface of the 
delivery roll. 

2. By dividing the weight per unit of length of the product 
delivered, into the weight of the same length of the material 
fed into the feed-rolls. 

3. By dividing the length delivered by the delivery roll in a 
certain time, by the length fed into the feed-roll in the same 
time- 
It will be observed that these three methods of finding the 

draft deal with the ratio between the length, weight, or speed 
of the material fed and the corresponding condition of the 
material delivered; and from these examples will be deduced 
the facts that while the length of material fed into the machine 
is increased by drafting, the weight per unit of length is always 
decreased in the same proportion. 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 



75 



Draft may therefore be defined in various ways, thus: (1) 
The ratio between th-j length delivered and the length fed in a 
certain time; (2) the ratio of speed between a point on the 
delivery roll and a point on the feed-roll; (3) the number of 
times that a certain length of material is increased while being 
operated on; (4) the ratio between the weight of a certain 
length of material fed and the weight of the same length of 
material delivered; (5) the number of times that the weight of a 
certain length of material is decreased while being operated on. 

GEARING OF ROLLS 

Draft calculations are ordinarily performed by taking into 
consideration the weight per unit of length of the material being 
fed or delivered and the gearing that connects the delivery and 
feed-rolls as well as the sizes of the rolls themselves. 




Pig. 1 

Figs. 1 and 2 are views of four pairs of rolls and their gearing. 
The front rolls are marked a and ci; the second top roll, 6i; 
the third, ci; and the back top roll, di. The bottom roll a 
drives the back bottom roll by a train of gears e, f, g, h; e is on 
the roll a; /j is on the back roU; / and g are compounded and 
revolve on a stud. The third bottom roll is diiven from the 
'-^ack roll by means of three gears i, k, I, Fig. 2; j is on the back 
roll; I is on the third roll; and k is an idler, or carrier, gear 



76 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 



revolving on a stud. The second bottom roll is driven from 
the roll a by means of three gears vt, n, o; m is on the second 
roll; o is on the front roll a; and « is a carrier gear revolving 
on a stud. 

A carrier gear is usually placed between a driver and a driven 
gear when it is not convenient to make the latter large enough 
to mesh with each other, or where it is necessary to change the 
direction of motion of the driven gear without changing its 
speed. It is important, in connection with draft calculations, 
to notice which gears are merely carrier gears, as a carrier gear 
does not affect the speed, and must be left out of aU calculations 
of trains of gears of which it forms a unit. 




Fig. 2 



The sizes of the rolls shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are as follows: 
Front roll a. If in.; second roll. If in.; third roll, li in.; fourth 
roll. If in. These dimensions represent the diameter of the 
roll in each case. 

The simplest method of showing draft rolls and their gearing, 
is to make a diagram in which horizontal lines are drawn to show 
the lines of rolls, and short lines drawn at right angles to these 
to indicate the gears connecting the rolls. 

Fig. 3 shows a diagram that would represent the rolls and 
gearing shown in both Figs. 1 and 2. This indicates that 
there are four lines of rolls and that the power is received by 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 77 

the tight and loose pulley shown on the front-roll shaft. It 
further shows that motion is conveyed to the back roll from 
the front roll by means of the gears e, f,g,h; that the third roll 
is driven from the back roll by means of the gears j, k, I; and 
that the second roll is driven from the front roll by the gears 
m, n, o. The ntmaber of teeth in each gear is shown in the figure, 
as well as the diameters of the rolls. The arrows indicate the 
places where the driving gears connect with the driven gears 
and point from the driving toward the driven gears. 

DRIVING AND DRIVEN GEARS 

It is a matter of great convenience in dealing with calculations 
of drafts to be able to refer to certain gears as driven gears and 
others as driving gears, but it is frequently difficult to determine 
which are driven gears and which are driving gears; for trains 
of gears driving draft rolls are often complicated, as one gear 
may transmit motion to two trains of gears and these in turn 
drive back to other trains of gears. In all cases in connection 

/^-l ^ Is" 






W' 



mSfA 



Draff Cfiange Gear-g 



//' 



eZ2 

Fig. 3 

with draft calculations, therefore, it is advisable to consider 
that the gear on the end of the delivery roll, which transmits 
motion to the other roll or rolls, is a driver, whether it is, or is 
not, in fact; and starting from this point, the next gear would 
therefore be a driven, the third a driver, the fourth a driven, 
ignoring carrier, or idler, gears. 

For example, if it is desired to find the draft between the 
third and back rolls in Fig. 3, as only these two rolls are to 



78 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

be considered, the third roll would be considered the delivery 
roll and the gear I the driver, while the gear j on the back roll 
must be the driven, k being a carrier and consequently left out 
of the calculation. The fourth roll would be considered to be 
the feed-roll. 

CALCULATING DRAFT OF COMMON ROLLS 

Although in reality the draft between two pairs of rolls rep- 
resents the ratio of the circumferential speed of one pair to 
the circumferential speed of the other, it is not necessary to take 
into consideration the circumference of the rolls when calculat- 
ing draft, as the circumferences of two circles, or rolls, bear the 
same relation to each other as do their diameters. 

The sizes of rolls also, are usually expressed by their diameters, 
and it is easier to measure the diameter than the circumference 
of a roil. In draft calculations only the sizes of the bottom 
rolls are taken into account. The top rolls are driven by 
frictional contact with the bottom rolls, and therefore revolve 
at the same circumferential speed; consequently, the sizes of 
the top rolls can be ignored. 

Another point to be taken into consideration is that the 
diameters of draft rolls in cotton machinery are always expressed 
in inches and fractions of an inch. It is, therefore, far simpler, 
when performing draft calculations, to change the numbers 
representing the diameters of the rolls to fractions having a 
common denominator, and then omit these common denomi- 
nators from the calculations. 

In practice, when calculating drafts by means of gears, the 
diameters of the rolls and the sizes of the gears must be con- 
sidered, and the following rule will be found to meet almost 
every possible combination of gears and rolls of which the draft 
is reqxdred to be calculated. 

Rule. — Always assume that the gear on the delivery roll is a 
driver; multiply all driven gears by the diameter of the delivery 
roll, expressed in eighths of an inch, and divide by the product 
of all the driving gears and the diameter of the feed-roll, expressed 
in eighths of an inch. 

Referring to the arrangement of draft rolls and gears repre- 
sented by the diagram, in Fig. 3, the application of the rule to 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 79 

finding the draft between a and d would result in the diameter 
of the roll a and the number of teeth in the gears / and h being 
placed as the numerator of a fraction, and the diameter of the 
roll d and the number of teeth in the gears e and g as the denomi- 
nator of the fraction; consequentlj', an increase in the diameter 
of the front roll would cause an increased draft. An increase 
in the size of the gears f or h would also cause an increased 
draft, and an increase in the size of the feed-roll, or an increase 
in the size of the gears e or g would caiise a decreased draft. 

For instance, assuming that the speed of the front roll 
remains the same and its diameter is increased, the draft would 
be increased, as it would deliver a greater length in the same 
space of time. An increase in the size of the back roll would 
reduce the draft, because a greater length of material would 
be fed to the rolls while the same length was being delivered 
at the front, and consequently the draft must be smaller. Sim- 
ilarly, an increase in the size of the gears eor g would result in 
the feed-roll taking in more material in the same space of time, 
consequently reducing the draft; and an increase in the size 
of the gears f or h would result in the feed-roll taking in less 
material in the same space of time and, as the length delivered 
at the front would remain the same, the draft would be increased. 

In figuring drafts, the gear on the delivery roll may be con- 
sidered as a driver, and the next gear will be a driven, and so on 
alternately throughout the train of gears, always provided that 
the carrier gears in the train, if any, are ignored in consequence 
of their being simply idlers and not affecting the amount of 
draft. The delivery roll should be understood as the front roll 
of those rolls between which the draft is to be calculated. If 
the draft is being figured between a and d. Fig. 3, a is the 
delivery roll; if between b and c, b is the delivery roll. 

In the combination of rolls shown in Fig. 3, it is possible 
to calculate several diflerent drafts: (1) the total draft, which 
represents the extent of attenuation between the back roll 
and the front roll; (2) the draft between the front roll and the 
second; (3) the draft betv/een the second and third rolls; and 
(4) the draft between the third and fourth rolls. The accu- 
racy of the calculation for the total draft can always be proved 
by miiltiplying the individual drafts together. 



80 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

Example 1. — ^Referring to Fig. 3, the front roll is 11 in. in 

diameter and carries a 22-tooth gear driving a 98-tooth gear. 

Compounded with this is a 65 gear driving a 70-tooth gear on 

the back roll, which is li in. in diameter. What is the total 

draft, or the draft between the front and back pairs of rolls? 

11X98X70 , , , 

Solution. — ■ = 5.86, total draft 

22X65X9 

Example 2. — Referring to Fig. 3, the front roll is If in. in 

diameter and carries an 18-tooth gear driving a 54 on the second 

roll, which is also If in. in diameter. What is the draft between 

these two pair of rolls? 

11X54 ^ ^ ^ 

Solution. — =3, draft 

18X11 

Example 3. — Referring to Fig. 3, the second roll is If in. in 
diameter and carries a 54-tooth gear driving an 18 on the front 
roll. On the other end of the front roll is a 22 driving a 98 
compounded with a 65, which drives a 70 on the back roll. 
On the other end of the back roll is a 40 driving a 30 on the 
third roll, which is 1| in. in diameter. What is the draft 
between the second and the third rolls? 

Solution. — 

11X18X98X70X30 ^ _ , , 

=1.466, draft 

54X22X65X40X9 

Example 4. — The third roll in Fig. 3 is driven from the back 

roll. The back roll is li in. in diameter and carries a 40-tooth 

gear driving a 30 on the third roll, which is also li in. in 

diameter. What is the draft between these two pairs of rolls? 

9X40 

Solution. — =1.333, draft 

30X9 

Proof. — The total draft as found in example 1 may be 

proved, as already stated, by multiplying together the drafts 

obtained in examples 2, 3, and 4. 

3X 1.466X 1.333 = 5.86, total draft 

BREAK DRAFT 

Break draft is a draft between two contiguous pairs of rolls 
that are not directly connected by means of gears. Reference 
to Pig. 3 indicates that the second and third pairs of rolls are 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 



81 



adjacent to each other, and yet are not directly connected, the 
driving of the third pair of rolls being attained by means of a 
long train of gears from the delivery roll, and the second roll is 
driven by a short train of gears from the delivery roll. The 
break draft in this case, therefore, occurs between the second 
and third pair of rolls, which are not directly connected. 

Break draft may be found in two ways, one method being 
to start with the gear m, Fig. 3, and finish with the gear I, using 
the diameters of the rolls b and c. 

The second method is to calculate the total draft between the 
first and fourth rolls, Fig. 3; then between the third and fourth; 
and next between the first and second rolls. The drafts 
between the third and fourth and the first and second rolls 
are multiplied together and divided into the draft between 
the first and fourth rolls, or the total draft. The quotient 
will be the break draft, or the draft between the second and 
third rolls. 

if . /i" 



ir 



Ji' 



li' 



n/6 
Vro/t Cf!on^e Sear— ^8/- 




'f)7(f 



-fflS 



^.20 



Fig, 4 



Example. — Find the break draft, or draft between the second 

and third pairs of rolls shown in Fig. 3. 

Solution (o) . — Figured according to the first method, 

11X18X98X70X30 

= 1.466, break draft • 

54X22X65X40X9 

Solution (6), — Figured according to the second method, 

9X40 

= 1.333, draft between third and fourth rolls 

30X9 



82 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 



11X54 
18X11 



= 3, draft between first and second rolls 



11X98X70 



= 5.863, total draft 



22X65X9 

1.333X3 = 3.999; 5.863 -v- 3.999 = 1.466, break draft 

Fig. 4 shows four pairs of drawing rolls geared in a different 

manner from that shown in Fig. 3. In this case the gear e on 

the front roll a drives the third roll c by means of the gears /, g, 

h', the fourth roll d is driven from the third roll by the gears 

j, k, I; k is an idler, or carrier, gear. The second roll b is 

driven from the third roll by the gears j, m, n; the gear m is an 

idler, or carrier, gear. The break draft in this case is located 

between the first and second roUs and is calculated thus: 

11X115X70X16 „^,^ ^ , ^ , 

= 2.915, break draft 

20X81X30X10 



METALLIC ROLLS 

In recent years metallic rolls have been introduced, especially 
on the preparatory machines in the processes of cotton-yam 




Fig. 5 



preparation. Owing to the peculiar construction of these rolls, 
the niles previously given for figuring draft do not apply to them 




DRAFT CALCULATIONS 83 

without modification. Both the upper and lower rolls are, in 
this case, constructed of steel, and both rolls ajre fluted longi- 
tudinally. These flutes are different in shape and considerably 

- ^ coarser than the flutes 

_ ^fea. in common steel rolls, 

nii^ ■,i.x^..-v.---A^^^^ ^^^^x - a ^;^T-^ a,nd when in operation 

t \ w I ^ ' ~ the flutes of one roll 

project into the flutes 
of the other roll, the 
rolls being prevented 
^ . i, ya==^^ from coming into too 

close contact by means 
of collars. 

Fig. 5 is a view of a 
■(^ set of metallic rolls in 

Fig. 6 position. Fig. 6 gives 

a view of the ends of two rolls; 6 and 6i are the fluted por- 
tions of the bottom and top rolls, respectively, meshing into 
one another; a and oi are the collars on the rolls, which pre- 
vent the flutes from bottoming. The collars are slightly 
smaller than the outside diameter of the boss, which is the 
name applied to each fluted portion of the rolls, and thus pro- 
vides for a certain degree of meshing between the bosses. 

A section through a por- ^ /////>r/r/r/////////////////// / // 

tion of the two rolls is 

shown in Fig. 7. The 

sliver c as operated on 

by the rolls is also indi- "^'"'jn 

cated. ^ '<^^---^///S^///i^S<y/Acr^"^^ 

Allowances Made in ^ />^^^t$^:s5$$^$^$^S!^^^$$r<*- 
Calculating Production 
and Draft. — The crimp- 
ing action of metallic .;w^ 
rolls causes a greater "^^ 
length to be fed and -c, - 

delivered than in the 

case of common rolls of the same diameter. It is usually 
assumed that one-third more material is delivered by a 
metallic roll than by a common roll of the same diameter 




84 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

on this account, the zigzag lines of the circumference being 
about 33|% longer than the circumference of a circle passing 
through the points of the teeth. To obtain accurate results 
in figuring production with metallic rolls, therefore, a cer- 
tain percentage — usually 33| — ^must be added to the diam- 
eter of each roll. A 1-in. roll would be taken as 1.33 in.; 
l|-in., 1.5 in.; li-in., 1.67 in.; If-in., 1.83 in.; IJ-in. 2 in. 
The foregoing allowances are for ordinary metallic roUsi 
constructed with 32 flutes for each inch of diameter. Metallic 
drawing rolls are made with flutes of varying pitch, either 16 
pitch, 24 pitch, or 32 pitch. This means that for each inch of 
diameter of the roll there are either 16, 24, or 32 flutes. For 
instance, li-in. roll of 32 pitch would have 40 flutes in its 
circumference. The allowance of 33 J % is made in case of rolls 
being constructed of 32 pitch, but for 16-pitch rolls this 
allowance is increased to 50%, and for 24 flutes to the 
inch, an allowance of 40% is made. 

Another feature to consider in connection with metallic rolls 
is that the extent of the crimping action or attenuation through 
the interlocking of the rolls is less for heavy slivers than for 
light slivers, as heavy slivers resist the tendency of the rolls to 
interlock, and, in some cases where they are insufficiently 
weighted, will raise the top roll and pass through in almost a 
straight hne. It therefore follows that the drafting action is 
greater with light slivers than with heavy ones, and that if the 
front and back rolls of the machine are both the same pitch in 
the flutes, the drafting action of the back pair of rolls is less 
thar? that of the front pair, since the sliver becomes thinner as 
it passes forwards through the machine, on account of being 
acted on b^^ the draft between each successive pair of rolls; 
thus the greater draft of metallic rolls is really caused by the 
difference in the relative effect of the crimping action at the 
back rolls and at the front rolls. 

The action of metallic rolls as compared with common rolls 
may be described as follows, assuming that a comparison is 
being made between a set of four pairs of common and four pairs 
of metallic rolls all of the same outside diameter, aU geared 
in the same manner, and all running at the same speed. The 
back metallic rolls would absorb approximately 25% more 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 85 

material fed into them and the front rolls would deliver 
approximately 33^% more material than the common rolls. 
In this case, therefore, the draft of the metallic rolls would 
have to be figured in the ordinary way, as for common rolls, 
and an addition of 33^% minus 25% equaUng 8i%, made to 
the calculated draft so as to equal the actual draft in the case 
of the metallic rolls. 

In cases where the sliver is between 45 and 70 gr., in weight, 
the draft between 41 and 7, the back and front rolls approxi- 
mately of the same size, and flutes with a 32 pitch used, an 
allowance of 9% over and above the draft as calculated with 
common rolls is frequently made, in order to arrive at the actual 
draft in case of metallic rolls. 

From the preceding statements it will be seen that this 
allowance cannot be arbitrary. The allowance should be 
increased in case of running very light slivers, in case of rolls 
being used of coarser pitch than 32, in case of there being a 
heavy draft in the machines, or where the front rolls are very 
much larger than the back rolls. The allowance is materially 
reduced in case of a heavy sliver being run through the machine, 
in case of a light calculated draft, or in case of the back rolls 
being larger than the front rolls. 

The numerous causes of variation in the allowances render 
it almost impossible to accurately figure drafts for metallic 
rolls, and in making changes in machines fitted with metallic 
rolls or in starting up such machines, it is necessary to experi- 
ment somev/hat with different gears to arrive at the desired 
result; but when this result is once obtained, and so long as the 
conditions remain the same, the results from metallic rolls are 
just as regular as from common rolls. The accompanying 
table gives the allowances that should be made, under various 
conditions, on the calculated draft for common rolls in order to 
ascertain what the draft would be if metallic rolls of the same 
diarneter were used and assuming that the front and back roUs 
do not vary greatly in diameter. 

The table must not be taken as arbitrary, for slight variations 
from this must be expected in practice. Drafts from 5 to 8 
may be considered medium drafts. 



86" DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

INCREASE IN DRAFT OF METALLIC ROLLS 



Weight of Gliver 



Light 

Draft 

Per Cent. 



Medium 
Draft 

Per Cent. 



Heavy 
Draft 

Per Cent. 



50-grain 

60-grain 

70-grain 

80-grain 

90-grain 

100-grain 

llO-grain 

120-grain 

130-grain 

140-grain 

150-grain 



sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 
sliver 



7 

6 

5 

4 

3^ 

3 

3 

2-1 

21 

2 



10 
9 

8 

7 

6 

5^ 

5 

4 

31 

3 



12 
11 

10 
9 
8 
7 
7 
6 

51 
5 
4 



DRAFT GEARS 

In each principal train of gears connecting draft rolls, one 
gear is always spoken of as the change gear or draft gear, and 
this is the one that is usually changed for altering the draft of 
the machine. The draft gear, as shown at g, Figs. 1 and 3, is 
usually situated on a stud together with another gear /, which 
is known as the crown gear in order to distinguish it from the 
draft gear. 

Any change in the draft gear alters the speed of the feed- 
rolls, but the speed of the front rolls remains constant. Usually, 
a larger draft gear will increase the speed of the feed-rolls, thus 
producing less draft, because more cotton is being fed and there 
has been no change in the length of the amount delivered. A 
smaller gear will produce more draft. 

It should also be noted that a change in the draft gear g, 
Pig. 3, makes no difference in the ratio of speed between the 
first and second rolls or between the third and fourth rolls, but 
it does between the first and fourth and between the second 
and third rolls. This is also true in regard to Fig. 4; that is 
any change in the draft change gear g will only change the draft 
between the sets of rolls where the break draft is located and 
between the front and back rolls. 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 87 

The following rules apply to drafts and draft gears when the 
draft gear is a driver, assuming that the gear on the front roll 
is a driver. 

The draft gear required to give a certain draft when the 
draft gear being used and the draft being produced axe known 
may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft being 
produced and divide the product by the draft desired. 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft gear of 65 teeth pro- 
duces a draft of 5.86. What draft gear will be reqviired to pro- 
duce a draft of 7? 

Solution. — 

65X5.86 

= 54.41, a 54 draft gear 

7 

The draft a certain draft gear will produce when the draft 
gear being used and the draft being produced are known, may 
be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft being 
produced and divide the product by the draft gear to be used. 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft gear of 65 teeth pro- 
duces a draft of 5.86. What draft will a 54 draft gear produce? 

65X5.86 

Solution. — =7.053, draft 

54 i- 

The following rules apply to drafts and draft gears when the 
draft gear is a driven, and for the purpose of illustration the 
gear /, Fig. 3, which is a driven gear, will be considered as the 
draft change gear. 

The draft gear required to give a certain draft when the draft 
gear being used and the draft being produced are known, may 
be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft to be 
produced and divide the product thus obtained by the draft being 
produced. 

Example. — Refenring to Fig. 3, a draft of 5.86 is being pro- 
duced with a 98-tooth draft gear. What draft gear will be 
required to give a draft of 7? 

98X7 

Solution. =117.06, a 117 draft gear 

5.86 



88 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

The draft a certain gear will give when the draft gear being 
used and the draft that it is producing are known, may be 
found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the draft that is being produced by the draft 
gear that is to be used and divide the product thus obtained by the 
draft gear being used. 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft of 5.86 is being pro- 
duced with a 98 draft gear. What draft will be produced with a 
117 draft gear? 

5.S6X117 

Solution. — = 6.996, draft 

98 



CONSTANTS 

Constants are almost always used to shorten calculations 
for draft. There are two kinds of constants used in these prob- 
lems; namely, constant dividends and constant factors. A 
constant dividend is a number which, when divided by the draft, 
will give the necessary draft gear; or it may be defined as a 
number which, v>rhen divided by the draft gear being used on a 
machine, will give the draft that the machine is producing. 
A constant factor- is a nvunber which, when divided into the 
draft, will give the draft gear necessary to produce the desired 
draft; or it may be defined as a number which, when multiplied 
by the draft gear being used on a machine, will give the draft 
that the machine is producing. 

Each different make of machine and each different kind of 
machine has a different constant. 

Assuming that the gear on the front roll is a driver, the 
following statements may be made: 

When the draft gear is a driver, the constant is always a 
constant dividend. 

When the draft gear is a driven, the constant is always a 
constant factor. 

The draft constant of a machine may be found by the follow- 
ing rule: 

Rule. — Perform the calculations exactly the same as when 
finding the draft, always considering the draft gear as a 1-tooth 
gear, or omitting it from the calculation. 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 89 

Example. — What is the constant dividend of the rolls 

shown in Fig. 3? 

Solution. — 

11X98X70 

=381, constant dividend 

22X1X9 

The draft when the constant dividend and draft gear are 
known may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Divide the constant dividend by the draft gear. 

Example. — ^What is the total draft for Fig. 3 with a 65 draft 
gear at g, if the constant dividend is 381? 

Solution. — 381 -^ 65 = 5.86, draft 

The draft gear when the constant dividend and draft are 
known may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Divide the constant dividend by the draft desired. 

Example. — What draft gear will be required to produce a 
draft of 5.86 if the constant dividend is 381? 

Solution. — 381 -v- 5.86 = 65-tooth draft gear 

Example. — Figure the constant for Fig. 3, using the same 
train of gears as in the previous examples but considering the 
gear / as the draft change gear. 

Solution. — 

11X1X70 

= .0598, constant factor 

22X65X9 

The draft when the constant factor and draft gear are known 
may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the constant factor by the draft gear. 

Example. — What is the total draft for Fig. 3, considering 
/ as the draft gear, if the constant factor is .0598, a 98-tooth 
gear being used at /? 

Solution. — .0598X98 = 5.86, draft 

The draft gear when the constant factor and draft are known 
may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Divide the draft by the constant factor. 

Example. — ^What draft gear will be required at /, Fig. 3, to 
produce a draft of 5.86 if the constant factor with / considered 
as the change gear is .0598? 

Solution. — 

5.86-5- .0598=97.99, a 9S-tooth draft gear 



90 DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

From the examples given it will be noticed that a solution 
does not always give an exact number of teeth for the change 
gear. In such cases the nearest number is used. For example, 
if the solution of a draft calculation should show that a 64.84 
draft gear is required, then a 65 gear would be placed on the 
machine, and even if the calculation should show that a 64.52 
draft gear is required, a 65 gear would be used, except in cases 
where extreme accuracy is desired. Under these circtimstances 
either the back-roll gear or the crown gear would be changed. 
When the crown or the back-roll gear is changed, it is generally 
considered rhat one tooth in the draft gear is equal to two teeth 
in the crown, or the back-roll gear. This allowance is near 
enough for practical purposes and is the basis generally adopted 
in the mill. For example, a draft gear figures 42^ with a 60 
back-roll gear. A 42| draft gear cannot be used, so a 42 draft 
gear and a 59 back-roll gear, or a 43 draft and a 61 back-roll 
gear would probably be used. 



DOUBLING 

When calculating the effect of draft on the weight of the 
sliver or roving, deHvered from a machine, it is always neces- 
sary to take into consideration the number of ends that are 
to be drawn into one. For example, six ends of roving are 
run into one in a certain machine that has a draft of 6; conse- 
quently, each end of roving must be drawn out to one-sixth 
its former weight; but since there are six ends running into 
one, then the weight per yard of the sliver delivered will be 
the same as the weight per yard of a single sliver put up at 
the back. Therefore, if six slivers, each weighing 65 gr. to 
the yard, are run through a machine having a draft of 6, the 
sliver that comes out at the front will have the same weight; 
that is, 65 gr. Hence, when figuring the weight of product 
in connection with the draft of a machine, it is always neces- 
sary to take into consideration the number of ends that are 
placed at the back and run into a single end at the front. 

The weight of a sliver or roving produced by a machine 
when the draft of the machine and the number and weight of 



DRAFT CALCULATIONS 91 

the ends put up at the back are known may be found by the 
following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the weight per yard of the roving or sliver 
at the back by the number of ends run into one at the back and 
divide this product by the draft of the machine. 

The draft of a machine when the number of ends at the back, 
the weight of the sliver at the back, and the weight of the sHver 
delivered are known may be found by the following nile: 

Rule. — Multiply the weight per yard of the sliver at the back 
by the number of ends run into one at the back and divide this 
product by the weight per yard of the sliver delivered at the front. 

The following rules will be found to apply to draft calcula- 
tions when the weight of the sUver or roving is expressed in 
hanks. 

The hank of a roving made by a machine when the draft 
of the machine and the number and hank of the ends put up 
at the back are known may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the hank of the roving at the back by the 
draft of the machine and divide this product by the number of 
ends put up at the back. 

The draft of a machine when the number of ends at the back, 
the hank of the roving at the back, and the hank of the roving 
delivered are known may be fotmd by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the hank of the roving delivered by the number 
of ends put up at the back and divide by the hank of the roving 
used at the back. 



52 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



COTTON 

Cotton is a vegetable fiber belonging to the order of the Mal- 
vaceae and to the genus Gossypium. The principal species 
cultivated for commercial purposes are: Gossypium herbaceum, 
Gossypium arboreum, Gossypium hirsutum, and Gossypium 
Barbadense. 

Gossypium herbaceum grows from 2 to 6 ft. high and is found 
native or exotic in Northern Africa and in Asia; it is also largely 
cultivated in the United States of America. 

Gossypium arboreum grows to the height of 15 or 20 ft., 
whence it derives the name of tree cotton. Although the 
plant is found in Asia, it is most largely cultivated in Central 
and South America. 

Gossypium hirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximimi height 
being about 6 ft. The young pods are hairy; the seeds are 
numerous, free, and covered with firmly adhering green down 
under the long white wool. 

Gossypium Barbadense attains a height of from 5 to 10 ft. 
The seeds of this plant are black and smooth and the fiber the 
longest known to commerce. The sea-island cotton plant of 
the United States belongs to this species. 

STRUCTURE OF COTTON FIBER 

Cotton fiber, which to the naked eye appears to be a fine, 
smooth, and solid filament, exhibits a somewhat complicated 
structure when magnified. A inicroscopic view of _ cotton 
fibers is shown in the accompanying illustration. Each fiber 
appears to be a collapsed tube with corded edges, twisted 
many times throughout its length. This semispiral construc- 
tion assists in the formation of a strong yam, since in the for- 
mation of the thread, the convolutions interlock with one 
another. These convolutions are less and less frequent as 
the fiber is less matured, and are almost altogether absent in 
the immature fiber, which has merely the appearance of a 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 




flattened ribbon when examined under a microscope. The 
immature fiber is transparent and has a glossy appearance, 

so that when it exists in any 
quantity in a bale of cotton it 
can readily be detected with 
the naked eye. 

Ignoring the removable for- 
eign matter contained in raw 
cotton, such as sand and other 
mineral substances, leaf, and 
pieces of boll, or stalk, it is 
found to be composed of from 
87 to 90% of cellulose, perme- 
ated by about 1% or less of 
mineral matter, and that each fiber is surrounded by soluble 
substances of a waxy or oily nature present to the extent of 
from 1 to 2%. Cellulose absorbs and retains moisture, the 
cellulose in the cotton fiber, when in an air-dry condition, 
containing about 7|%. 

The quantity of removable foreign matter in cotton varies 
greatly ^N-ith the variety, and even in different growths of the 
same variety. It is present to the extent of from 1% in care- 
fully-cultivated sea-island to 6%, or more, in coarse, negli- 
gently-cultivated East Indian cotton. 

Measurements of Cotton Fiber. — Cotton fibers even from 
the same seed vary considerably in length and in diameter, 
and only approximate measurements can be given. The 
diameter of a cotton fiber varies from .0004 to .001 in., and 
the length of the fiber from | in. to 21 in. Doctor Bowman is 
the authority for stating that there are 140,000,000 fibers in 
a pound. 

The strength of Individual cotton fibers varies from 75 
to 300 gr. Usually the long-stapled, fine cottons break 
with the least strain, and the short coarse cottons stand 
the greatest strain. The ordinary American cottons have 
a breaking strain of from 120 to 140 gr. The specific 
gravity of air-dry cotton is about 1.5. 



54 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

SEA-ISLAND COTTON 

Sea-island cotton is grown on islands off the coast of the 
Southern States, and is recognized as being the best cotton 
grown. It has a long, fine, strong and silky fiber with com- 
I)aratively regular convolutions, a diameter of from .0004 to 
.0006 in., and ranges in length from If to 2 J in. 

Sea-island cotton is largely used for fine fabrics and for 
thread and lace-making purposes. It is regularly spun into 
from 150s to 400s yam, and occasionally, even for commercial 
purposes, as high as 600s. Where great strength is required 
for heavy goods, sea- island cotton is sometimes used, even 
for coarse yarns; as, for example, the fabrics for tires, sail 
cloth, and so on. 

The vrariety of so-called Florida sea-island cotton is grown 
on the mainland of Florida from sea-island seed; this is some- 
what inferior to the sea-island proper, but is a very useful 
cotton for making yams of a little better quality than those 
made from Egyptian cotton. It has a white, glossy, strong fiber, 
a little coarser than the strictly sea-island. It is suitable for 
yams from 150s to 200s. 

AMERICAN COTTON 

Although the sea-island cottons just described are American, 
this name is seldom applied to them, but is used to indicate 
the typical cotton of the world, which is grown in the Southern 
States of the United States and used wherever cotton-spinning 
mills exist. The cotton described commercially as American 
is sioited to medium numbers of yam; is usually clean, fairly 
regular in length of staple, satisfactorily graded, and conse- 
quently is one of the most reliable and useful cottons for a 
manufacturer's use. The quantity is greater than that collect- 
ively produced in all other parts of the world. American 
cotton may be divided into three important classes; namely, 
gulf cotton; uplands, or boweds; and Texas cotton. 

Gulf, or New Orleans, cotton usually consists of cotton raised 
in the basin of the Mississippi River. Gulf cotton is from 1 in. 
to 1 J in. in length of staple, from .0004 to .0007 in. in diameter, 
and is generally used for yarn from 28s to 44s warp and from 
50s to 70s filling or ply. This kind of cotton may be subdivided 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 93 

into others, known as Memphis, benders, Allan-seed, Peelers, 
and so on. The best qualities of gulf cotton are known as 
Allan-seed and Peelers. These are used for fine yarns, often 
for fine combed yams, and by some spinners preferred to Egyp- 
tian. The color is bluish white rather than cream-colored, and 
somewhat resembles short Florida sea-island. 

Uplands cotton is grown in the undulating country between 
the ocean and the mountains in the states of Georgia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and Alabama. It is gen- 
erally used for filling yams below 40s, although it may be spun 
higher if required. The length of the staple is from | to 1 in. 
and the fiber is from .0006 to .0007 in. in diameter. This cotton 
is usually very clean. 

The cultivation of Texas cotton is largely on the increase, 
and for coarse warp yam it is the most suitable cotton. In 
dry seasons it is apt to be somewhat harsh and brittle and 
cannot be relied on as much as gulf or uplands cotton. The 
staple is usually from | to 1 in. in length (sometimes exceeding 
this), and from .0005 to .0007 in. in diameter. Up to 26s 
and 32s warp yams and 32s and 40s filling yams are often 
made from Texas cotton, although it is eminently useful for 
warp, Oklahoma cotton is of the Texas style. 



BROWN EGYPTIAN COXTON 

The cotton used in American mills is largely grown in 
the United States, but in the fine-spinning districts a quan- 
tity of brown Egyptian cotton is used. The brown Egyp- 
tian cotton is generally used for warp yarns from 50s up- 
wards, and for filling yarns from 60s upwards intended 
for use in fine-woven cotton goods. Some of this cotton is 
also used for hosiery yarns and for the manufacture of 
Balbriggan underwear; in this case it is spun into lower 
numbers than those just mentioned. 

Almost all the Egyptian cotton used in the United States 
is combed. The features of brown Egyptian cotton are 
the length of staple and fineness of the fiber, it being 
very silky and delicate in 'structure. 



96 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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98 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

CLASSIFICATION OF COTTON 

Cotton is seldom, if ever, purchased from the examination 
of the bale, but from parcels containing small samples of cotton 
from each bale, technically known as papers of samples. In 
judging cotton from a sample, the first thing to do is to investi- 
gate the authenticity of the sample. The points then deter- 

GRADES OF AMERICAN COTTON 



Full Grades 



Half Grades 



Quarter Grades 



Fair 

Middling fair 

Good middling 

Middling 

Low middling 

Good ordinary 
Ordinary 



Strict middling fair 

Strict good middling 

Strict middling 

Strict low middling 

Strict good ordinary 

Strict ordinary 
Low ordinary 



Barely fair 
Fully middling fair 
Barely middling fair 
Fully good middling 
Barely good middling 
Fully middling 
Barely middling 
Fully low middling 
Barely low middling 
Fully good ordinary 
Barely good ordinary 

Inferior 



mined are: (1) the grade of the sample, (2) the staple, (3) the 
color, (4) the quantity of sand, (5) the amount of dampness, 
and (6) whether the cotton is even-running or not. 

American cotton is usually graded according to a standard 
agreed on in all the leading cotton markets of the world, the 
highest grade being fair, followed by six other grades, the lowest 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 99 

being ordinary; cotton of lower grade is called inferior. 
The seven full grades of American cotton are fair, 
middling fair, good middling, middling, low middling, 
good ordinary, and ordinary. 

This gradation is not sufficiently fine for the cotton 
merchant, and consequently each grade is subdivided into 
what are known as half grades and quarter grades as 
shown in the accompanying table. 

Government Cotton Classification.— In 1910, and sub- 
sequently, the United States, through the Department of 
Agriculture and the Bureau of Plant Industry, promul- 
gated a new system of cotton classification. The inten- 
tion was to make the grading of cotton a more exact 
science and to insure that the cotton grower, the mills 
consuming cotton, and all other parties concerned in 
trading in cotton, performed their transactions on a more 
definite basis as to the grade of cotton dealt with in any 
particular case. It was believed that the various grades 
of American cotton could be fully classified by a list of 
nine grades, and the following grades, therefore, were 
established: Middling fair, strict good middling, good 
middling, strict middling, middling, strict low middling, 
low middling, strict good ordinary, good ordinary. 

Official standards for these grades were established and 
a number of sets of cotton samples showing the standard 
grades were prepared. Some of these standard sets were 
placed in vacuum storage in vaults so that the standards 
might not be deteriorated by exposure to air, light, heat, 
etc. Other sets were prepared for practical use and for 
distribution. 

The United States Government standard cotton classi- 
fication has been adopted by the cotton exchanges in 
various American cities, but is not recognized in Eng- 
land, Continental European countries, or in any other 
foreign countries, with the single exception of the rather 
unimportant Rotterdam cotton exchange at Rotterdam, 
Holland. Also, with comparatively few exceptions, 
domestic mills use the old system of classifying cotton in 
26 grades in the buying of actual cotton for manufac- 



100 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

turing purposes. Thus, the Government system is em- 
ployed only for the classification of the very small 
amounts of actual cotton carried by domestic exchanges, 
tenderable in settlement of contracts, and in the com- 
paratively few cases where disputes as to grade exist and 
arbitration by the Secretary of Agriculture is involved. 

Classifying Cotton.— Grade actually refers to the con- 
dition of the cotton as regards cleanliness, that is, the 
appearance of the cotton as to its freedom from leaf and 
other impurities. Some graders take into consideration 
what is known as bloom, or brightness, of the cotton, 
which adds to the grade; also discoloration, known as off 
color, or tinges, which detracts from the grade. 

The word staple usually means the average length of 
the bulk of the fibers forming the bale assessed, and is 
found by taking a small portion of cotton, preparing a 
tuft of fibers from which the very short fibers have been 
removed, and then measuring the average length of fibers 
remaining. Cotton is spoken of by the length of staple; 
thus, 1-in. cotton, l|-in. cotton, and so on. There is 
something more that is usually implied by the word staple 
— strength of the fiber. This is determined by holding 
one end of the tuft between the first finger and thumb of 
each hand and breaking it. The word staple may there- 
fore be taken to mean the average length of the fibers 
forming the bale, and may also be understood to include 
the strength of the fibers; thus the expressions length of 
staple and strength of staple are obtained. 

The rich, bright, creamy appearance of cotton, especially 
in the early part of the year, is called the bloom. This 
bloom is only found on certain growths of cotton and 
adds somewhat to its value, especially where it is to be 
used for making weft, or filling, yarn, or where the goods 
are to be sold in their unbleached or undyed state. 
Tinges, high color, or off color, should be looked for. 
These are caused where the cotton has become tinged 
while on the plant, through rain stains, or by having 
fallen on the ground and become mixed with some of the 
red clay of the cotton field. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 101 

It is necessary to determine the quantity of sand and 
dirt in the cotton. This is often done by raising the 
cotton from the paper that holds it and noticing the 
quantity of sand remaining on the paper, this sand having 
fallen out by the repeated handling of the cotton. It is, 
perhaps, better to hold the handful of cotton as high as 
one's head and shake it so that the sand, if there is any, 
can be seen to fall from it. 

Another test is that for dampness. This can only be 
detected in the sample paper if the samples are newly 
drawn, in which case it can be felt by the hand. If the 
samples have been in stock for some time, the water 
originally contained in them will have evaporated and 
cannot be ascertained unless it has previously been so 
great as to cause a slight formation of mildew on the 
cotton, in which case it is indicated by the smell. 

The last point, and one that is important, is to see that 
all bales are somewhat alike. Usually a sample paper is 
made up of a handful of cotton from each of the lot of 
bales; by testing first one sample and then another it is 
determined whether the lot of cotton is even running. 
Occasionally, however, if not graded properly a lot of 
cotton is found to be mixed; some bales may be higher 
grade than others, some may be longer-stapled than others, . 
and even in the same bale an abnormal variation in 
length and strength of staple may be found. Cotton of 
this kind should be avoided altogether, as it is almost 
impossible to make satisfactory yarn from such cotton. 

World's Production of Cotton. — The world's production 
of cotton varies in different years, the variation being 
mainly caused by fluctuations in the crop of the United 
States, which produces about two-thirds of all the cotton 
used in the mills of the world. The total production is 
usually not far from 19,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each, 
British India produces about 15 per cent, of the total and 
Egypt about 7 per cent, or a little less. Other countries 
in comparison produce minor crops. Favorable or un- 
favorable growing seasons have a marked effect on the 
world's production of cotton in any specific year. 



102 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

PROCESSES AND OBJECTS 

In order to produce cotton yain, the fiber is passed through 
a number of processes, varying from ten in a mill manufactur- 
ing coarse yams to fifteen in one making fine yams. These 
processes may be divided into three classes as folio «vs: (1) mix- 
ing; (2) cleaning; (3) parallelizing and attenuating. 

No arbitrary method can be given for distinguishing between 
coarse, medium, and fine cotton yams, but a general classifica- 
tion is to consider yams below 30s as coarse; from 30s to 60s 
as medium numbers; and above 60s as fine yams. The pro- 
cesses in mills vary according to whether coarse, medium, or 
fine yarns are made. A mill making medium yams, for instance 
about 32s, •x'.'^ould in most cases use the following machines: 
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker, 
finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, third 
drawing, slubber, intermediate, roving frame, spinning frame. 
In cases where the railway head is used, it comes between 
the card and the first drawing; in this case the third drawing 
is omitted. Where the bale breaker is used, it takes a position 
before the automatic feeder. Where the mule is used, it takes 
the place of the spinning frame. 

The machinery for mills making 10s and below is as follows: 
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker, 
finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, slubber, 
roving frame, spinning frame. The railway head may be used 
instead of the first drawing process. 

The machinery used in mills making about 100s is as follows: 
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, finisher picker, card, 
sliver-lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first drawing, 
second drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing (optional), 
slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, roving frame, 
mule. Sometimes a drawing process is used between the card 
and the sliver-lap machine. Where four processes of drawing 
are used, the roving frame is not necessary, and where four 
processes of fly frames (slubber, first intermediate, second 
intermediate, and roving frame) are used, it is not always 
necessary to have more than three processes of drawing, 
although four may be used if required. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 103 

The machinery used in yarn mills for making 200s is as 
follows: automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, card, sliver- 
lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first drav«ring, sec- 
ond drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing, slubber, first 
interraediate, second intermediate, roving frame, mule. 

Although the foregoing combinations may be considered 
as the standards for the class of work to which they refer, it 
occasionally happens that mills are found using different lay- 
outs. This may be because the mill is intended to make a 
lower or a higher grade of yarn than is customary for the 
numbers referred to, or because it is a mill that has been changed 
over from other numbers and ,the old machinery has been 
retained; or there may be many other reasons. 

The objects of all cotton-yam-preparation machines are: 
(1) the separation of the matted mass of fiber into loose flakes 
and the removal of the heavier and more bulky impurities, 
which objects are principally attained in the opening and pick- 
ing processes; (2) the further cleansing of the stock from light 
and minute particles of foreign matter by such means as are 
adopted in the carding and combing processes; (3) the parallel- 
i2ing, evening, and attenuation of the fibers, as perform.ed in 
the carding and drawing processes, in the fly frames, and in 
the spinning process; (4) the strengthening of the product by 
twisting, as exemplified in ring or mule spinning. 



(^ COTTON MIXING 

The objects of mixing the cotton from a number of bales are: 
(1) to allow the cotton to assume its normal condition; (2) to 
establish an average quality of grade in the lot. 

The quantity of cotton tised in a mixing should be as large 
as possible; for the larger the mixing, the easier it is to keep 
the work uniform for a considerable length of time. In addition 
to securing regularity, another reason for having large mixings 
is to give cotton from compressed bales an opportunity to 
expand. 

Mixings when made by hand should occupy a considerable 
amount of floor space. The first bale should be spread all 



104 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



over this space, the second bale spread to cover the first, the 
third to cover the second, and so on. When a mixing is 
used, the cotton should be pulled away in small sections from 
the top to the bottom of the mixing so as to obtain portions 
of each. bale. 

It is a good plan when using bales of difEerent marks, to 
arrange the mixing so that no two bales of the same mark 
shall come in contact with each other. The following rule is 
used to find the number of sections that should be made in 
order to obtain the correct proportion of each mark in a 
section. 

Rule. — To find the number of sections of which a mixing 
should consist, find the largest number that will exactly divide the 
number of bales of each mark. Then, to find the number of bales 
of each mark that there should be in each section, divide the num- 
ber of bales of each mark by the number of sections in the mixing. 
Example. — Find a suitable order for mixing 100 bales, the 
mixing to consist of 40 bales marked ABC; 20, G H I; 10, J 
K L; and 30, D E F. 

Solution. — 10 is the largest number that will exactly 
divide 40, 20, 10, and 30; therefore, the mixing should be made 
lip of 10 sections, and in order to prevent any two bales of the 
same mark coming in contact with each other, they could be 
arranged as follows: 

GHI 

DEF 

ABC 

JKL 

DEF 

AB C 

GHI 

ABC 

DEF 

AB C 

If it is desired to mix exact proportions of different varieties 
of cotton, as American with Egyptian, or where dyed stock of 
one color, or more, is to be blended with white, the cotton may 
be blended to better advantage at some of the subsequent 
processes. 



* 10 times. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 105 

American cotton sometimes is mixed with Egyptian in order 
to cheapen the mixture. Brazilian cotton is sometimes mixed 
with American in order to increase the strength of the yam; 
and rough Peruvian cotton is occasionally mixed with Egyp- 
tian in order to give the latter woolly qualities. 

Although cotton is often mixed in this way, there is a cer- 
tain limit to the mixing of harsh and soft cottons; nor is it 
practical to mix long- and short-stapled cotton, as the machines 
of the later processes, if set for one length of staple, will either 
damage cotton of a different length or cause an imperfect 
prod act. 

A machine known as a bale breaker is sometimes used in 
mixing cotton. Its object is to separate the matted masses 
of cotton and to deliver it in an open state to the mixing bins. 
The principle employed in the bale breaker is to have three or 
four pairs of rolls, each pair revolving at a higher rate of speed 
than the preceding pair. The cotton fed to the pair that is 
revolving at a slow speed is pulled apart when it comes under 
the action of the pair revolving at a faster speed. The cir- 
cumferential velocity of the second pair is about twice that of 
the first pair, that of the third pair is about four times that 
of the second, and that of the last pair is about five times that 
of the third. The first set of rolls usually makes between 
5 and 6 rev. per min. 

The space between the different sets of rolls will be found 
to vary, but usually from the center of one pair to the center 
of the next is about 9 in. 

These rolls vary in construction, in some cases being solid 
with flutes their whole length, and in other cases are made 
of rings having projecting spikes. 

The cotton should not be fed in too thick layers, since this 
is liable to strain the rolls; all the dirt from underneath the 
machine, which consists chiefly of sand and other foreign sub- 
stances, should be removed periodically; and the machine 
should be properly oiled. 



106 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



AUTOMATIC FEEDER 

The automatic feeder is the first machine that receives the 
cotton after it has been mixed, and is used for the purpose of 
aiitomatically supplying or feeding the opener or the breaker 
picker. 

The accompanying illustration shows a section of an auto- 
matic feeder. The cotton is placed in the hopper a, which 
should be kept at least half full. The bottom apron ci tends 




to carry the whole mass toward the lifting apron 02. The 
spikes in, the lifting apron fill with fiber and often retain com- 
paratively large bunches of stock. After filling, they continue 
to move tipwards, and the tendency for so large a number of 
points acting on the mass of cotton is to impart a rolling 
motion to it. The stripping roll b acts continuously on the 
cotton carried by the lifting apron. The surface of this roll, 
moving in the opposite direction from the lifting apron and 
only about 1 in. from the point of the spikes, strikes oflE the 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 107 

excess cotton. The cotton remaining on the Hfting apron is 
the quantity necessary to supply the machine to which the 
feeder is attached, and must be removed from the pins carry- 
ing it. This is done by the doffer beater c, the surface of 
which moves in the same direction as the part of the apron 
nearest to it, but at a greater speed. The fibers removed 
from the Hfting apron are in small tufts, and a certain quan- 
tity of sand, etc., is thrown out by the centrifugal force of 
the doffer beater or drops by its own weight. This passes 
through the bars of the grating d into the chamber n. The 
cotton passes forwards and tlirough the passage e. 

The capacity of automatic feeders is very great, but since 
the amount of v/ork they do is governed entirely by the require- 
ments of the machine they feed, they are rarely run at their 
full capacity. Usually about 3,000 lb. in 10 hr. is the maximum 
run through a feeder. 

The feeder requires from 1§ to 2 H. P. and occupies a floor 
space of about 6 ft. 4 in. by 6 ft. 6 in. 



OPENER 

The opener is not used in all mills, as the automatic feeder is 
often connected directly to the breaker picker. The opener 
has for its objects the cleaning of the heavy impurities from 
the cotton and the separating of the cotton into small tufts 
that are light enough in weight to be influenced by an air- 
current generated by a fan in the succeeding machine. It 
attains these objects by presenting a fringe of cotton to a beater 
that makes from 1,200 to 1,800 rev. per min. This beater 
usually has two blades, and consequently for every revolution 
delivers two blows to the fringe of cotton. By this means any 
foreign substance will be struck from the fringe of cotton as 
it is held by the feed-rolls, and knocked through grid bars. 
The tufts of cotton will also be removed from the fringe as 
soon as they are released from the bite of the feed-rolls, and 
thus they will be sufficiently light to be acted on by the air- 
current that conveys the cotton to the next machine. 



108 



CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION 



BREAKER PICKER 

. The breaker picker is the first machine that deals with the 
cotton after it leaves the opener. This machine may receive 
the cotton either directly from an automatic feeder or from 
an opener through a trunk. The objects of the breaker picker 
are: (1) To remove foreign matter, especially the heavier and 
larger impurities, such as dirt, pieces of seed, leaf, etc.; (2) to 




separate the tufts of cotton so that they may be more easily 
manipulated at the next process; (3) to form the cotton into a 
layer and wind it on a roll in a cylindrical form known as a 
lap. 

The method used to attain these objects is to have a rapidly 
revolving beater strike a fringe of cotton, which is presented 
to it by a slowly revolving pair of feed-rolls. The process of 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 109 

cleaning is also aided by an air-current, which draws dust from 
the cotton. 

Pickers are known as pickers in single section or pickers in 
double section, according to whether they give the cotton a 
single or a double beating action. 

The manner of feeding the picker by means of a condenser 
and gauge box, when the cotton is conveyed through a trunk, 
is shown in the accompanying illustration. The air-current that 
draws the cotton from the opener through the trunk a is 
generated by a fan b. After leaving the trunk, the cotton 
first comes in contact with a c^'linder of wire netting known as 
a cage, shown at c. About two-thirds of the inner circumfer- 
ence of this cage is protected by a cradle d of sheet metal, which 
prevents the cotton from being drawn to this protected part 
of the cage, the air-current passing out through the ends of 
the cage and down the passage bi. The cradle d remains sta- 
tionary, but the cage c revolves in the direction shown by the 
arrow, and thus the cotton, which is drawn to that part of the 
cage that is not protected by the cradle, is brought around 
until it comes under the action of the stripping rolls /, g, which 
remove it from the cage. The cotton then drops into the 
gauge box j and on to the apron k, from which it is removed 
by the feed-rolls I, h, of the breaker picker. 

The passage of cotton through breaker pickers in single 
section, whether they are fed by a condenser and gauge box or 
by a cage section, is the same. 

After the cotton delivered by the feed-rolls I, h has been 
struck by the rapidly revolving beater ai, it passes over grid 
bars ci in order that any dirt or other foreign matter may be 
separated and fall through the spaces between the bars. Then 
it is carried over inclined cleaning, or grate, bars / so that other 
foreign matter, too heavy to be carried by the air-current, 
may have an opportunity of dropping through the spaces 
between the bars. This cleaning process is continued while 
the cotton collects in a layer on the surface of two revolving 
cages or screens, e, ei, through which a current of air is drawn 
by a revolving fan k. The cotton, now in the form of a sheet or 
layer, is removed by stripping rolls p and allowed to pass over 
a stripping plate r, between smooth calender, or presser, rolls 



110 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

s, si, 52, 53, bet-ween rolls Si and t, and round the lap roll v that 
rests on the fluted calender rolls t, h, thus forming the lap x. 

The draft of a breaker picker is usually a little less than 2, 
and is figured from the fluted calender rolls to the feed-rolls. 

The floor space of a breaker varies according to the style 
and make of the machine. One type of a single-beater breaker 
with a cage section occupies a floor space of 13 ft. 9 in. by 
6 ft. 8 J in., allowing for trunk connections. A double-beater 
machine, other particulars as above, occupies 19 ft. 10 in. by 
(■) ft. 8| in. Where a condenser and gauge box are used 
instead of a cage section, from 7 to 9 in. may be deducted 
from the length given above. These measurements are for 
pickers that make laps 40 in. wide. 

When in single section, breaker pickers require about 4| 
H. P.; when in double section, about 7 H. P. 

The production depends on the speed, width of lap, and 
weight of lap per yard. A common production is about 500 lb. 
per hour, or 25,000 lb. for a week of 50 hr. actual running time. 



INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER PICKERS 

Intermediate and finisher pickers are practically alike in 
construction and differ very little from a breaker picker in 
single section. Their objects are the same as those of the 
breaker picker; the lap that they produce, however, is of a 
more uniform weight per yard. 

Four laps taken from the previous picker are placed on the 
feed apron and thus the advantage gained by doubling is 
secured. 

EVENER MOTION 

After it is delivered by the feed-rolls, the cotton is treated 
in the same manner as in the breaker picker, but the manner 
in which it is fed into the intermediate and the finisher picker 
is somewhat different from that in a breaker picker, on account 
of the evener motion, the object of which is to regulate the speed 
of the feed-roll in accordance with the weight of cotton fed so 
that a uniform weight will be presented to the beater. 



CO TTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



111 



Fig. 1 IS a complete view of all the attachments of an evener 
motion. The manner in which this evener regulates the speed 
of the feed-roll in accordance with the weight of cotton fed 
is as follows: The sectional plates d are pressed down on the 
roll c by the weight fi, shown on the lever /, through the con- 
nection made by ei and the saddles. The distance that these 
plates are raised from the roll c is governed by the quantity cf 
cotton that passes between them and the roll; and the distance 
these plates are raised will govern the position of the belt on 




Fig. 1 



the cones, and, consequently, the speed of the roll c that feeds 
the cotton. 

When the proper weight of cotton is being fed uniformly 
throughout the length of the feed-roll c, the plates are raised 
the same distance from the roll c and the belt should be exactly 
in the center of the cones. If, however, a portion of cotton 
1 in. thicker than the average thickness comes under the section 
plate at the extreme left, this section plate will be raised 1 in. 
from its normal position. The result of this will be that the 
end of the lever ei resting on this plate will be raised 1 in.. 



112 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

which in turn will raise the end of the lever €2 connected to 
ei J in. The end of the lever es that is connected to this lever ea 
will therefore be raised I in., which, by causing the pin d to 
be raised | in., will result in the lever / being raised | in. at 
the point /i. 

As the lever / cannot rise at /2, its other end must rise and, 
through the rod g, turn the shaft gi. The segment h will 
therefore be moved, and through the gears hi, ho, and the rack k, 
the belt will be guided on to the smaller part of the lower, or 
driving, cone, thus decreasing the speed of the feed-roll and 
reducing the weight of cotton ted. As soon as this heavier 
portion of cotton has passed and the correct weight is fed, 
the parts will be brought to their normal positions by means of 
the weight on the lever /. 

In this illustration, an extreme case has been taken, as it 
is seldom that an extra portion of cotton 1 in. thicker than 
the average comes under one of the section plates; but the 
belt would be moved the same distance if a portion of cotton 
I in. thicker than the average should come under all the sec- 
tion plates. If four of the plates are raised 5 in. from their 
normal position, it will have the same effect as raising each 
plate I in. It is therefore obvious that the arrangement is 
designed to insure a uniform weight of cotton being fed, 
regardless of the number of plates that are affected. 

MEASURING MOTION 

The measuring motion is used to a greater extent on inter- 
mediate and finisher pickers than on breaker pickers. Its 
object is, when a definice length has been wound on the lap 
roll, automatically to stop the feed-rolls, the smooth calender 
rolls, and in some cases the fluted calender rolls, .while the 
beater shaft and fans continue to revolve. 

A view of a measuring motion is shown in Fig. 2 ; a represents 
the end of the bottom calender roll, carrying a worm b, which 
through a worm-gear c, a shaft ci, and a bevel gear d, diives a 
bevel gear e. The gear e, together with a dog /, is loose on a 
stud g and carries a projection ci, the dog / also carrying a 
projection /i. The dog, if allowed to do so, would fall because 
of its own weight so that its point would be down, but as the 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



113 



gear e receives motion from the bottom calender roll, the pro- 
jection ei on the gear e comes in contact with the projection /i 
on the dog / and thus continually forces the dog around ahead 
of it; consequently, when the projection ei is at its highest 
position, the parts mentioned occupy the position shown. 

As the gear e continues to revolve, the dog / will be brought 
in contact with a projection on a lever h that is connected 
to the starting lever hi fulcrumed at hi. Connected to hi is a 
rod j, that runs along the side of the picker and connects 
with a double worm r. Fig. 3. A bracket k. Fig. 2, is also 
attached to the rod h2, and attached to this bracket is a rod ki 



'^^ 




Fig. 2 



that connects with the clutch I, Fig. 4, through which the lap 
head is driven. 

When the picker is running, the cut-out, shown in dotted 
lines, in the lever h. Fig. 2, has a bearing on a casting, and 
thus the starting lever hi is held in such a position that the 
worm r. Fig. 3, is in contact with the worm-gear n the clutch I, 
Fig. 4, being closed. When, however, the gear e. Fig. 2, has 
made one revolution and has brought the dog / into contact 
with the lever h, any further movement causes the dog / to 
force the cut-out on h from its bearing. This causes the start- 
ing lever hi to drop, disconnecting the clutch I; the worm r 
is also thrown out of gear, causing the calender rolls and the 
feed-rolls to stop. 



114 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

GEARING 

The gearing of a picker equipped with the evener motion 
illustrated in Fig. 1, is shown in Fig. 4. The beater shaft m 
is driven from a countershaft, and carries the usual pulleys 
for driving the fan and feed-rolls. 

The feed-pulley mi drives a pulley 7W2 on a shaft n extending 




Fig. 3 

across the picker. From this shaft, the cones and the feed-rolls, 
together with the feed-apron, are driven. As the feed-apron is 
driven through the cones, its speed will always be in accord- 
ance with that of the feed-rolls. The lap head, cages, and 
stripping rolls are driven through a side shaft p, which receives 
its motion froxn the shaft n. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

2f Omft Genra 



lis 




Fig. 4 



116 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

The measuring motion is provided with change gears, "by 
means of which different lengths of laps can be procured. 
When finding the length of lap, the number of revolutions 
made by the bottom calender roll while the knock-off gear is 
revolving once should first be determined; this result multi- 
plied by the circumference of the roll will give the length of 
lap. Referring to Fig. 2, the bottom calender roll a is 7 in. 
in diameter, 6 is a single worm, and the worm-gear c is the 
change gear; the gear d has 21 teeth, and the knock-off gear e 
has 30 teeth. 

The length of lap delivered when using a 45-tooth change 

30X45- 

gear is as follows: ■=64.285 revolutions of roll to one 

21X1 
revolution of gear e. 64.285X7X3.1416 = 1,413.704 in.; 
1,413.704 inches -^ 36 = 39.269 yd., length of lap. 
This example could also be expressed as follows: 

30X45X7X3.1416 

— = 39.26 yd. 

21X1X36 

A constant for the measuring motion may be obtained by 

omitting the change gear or considering it a 1-tooth gear. 

This constant, multiplied by the nimiber of teeth in any change 

gear, will give the length of lap delivered when using that 

gear, and consequently the gear for producing a certain length 

may be found by dividing the length of lap required by the 

constant. The constant is obtained as follows: 

30X(1)X 7X3.1416 

— ^-^ = .8726, constant 

21X1X36 

Draft of Intermediate and Finisher Pickers. — The draft 
change gears are shown in Fig. 4; there are two change gears 
ni, «2. so that if the proper draft cannot be obtained by changing 
one gear, the other may be changed. The draft. of an inter- 
mediate picker is usually about 4.25 and that of a finisher 
picker about 4.50, when there are 4 laps up at the back. 

The total draft of the machine shown in Fig. 4, with a gear 

of 55 teeth on the lower-cone shaft meshing with a gear of 35 

teeth, and with the belt in the center of the cones, is as follows: 

9X24X12X17X18X27X55X9X78X24 



24X53X96X60X27X35X9X2X12X3 



= 4.422, draft 



COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 117 

CALCULATION OF COLORED MIXES 

Colored mixtures of stock are often made by the combination 
of laps on the intermediate and finisher pickers. The follov^'ing 
method may be used in finding the percentage of any material 
or color in the laps from the finisher picker, whatever may be 
the weight of the laps fed to either the intermediate or finisher 
picker, the colors or materials fed, etc. 

Let A =■ sum of the weight per yard of the laps of any one 

color, or kind, fed to the intermediate picker; 
B = sum of the weight per yard of all of the laps fed to 

the intermediate picker; 
C = sum of the weight per yard of the "mixture" laps 

from the intermediate picker that are fed to the 

finisher picker; 
D = sum of the weight per yard of the laps of the same 

color (as tmder A) that are fed to the finisher 

picker; 
£ = sum of the weight per yard of all of the laps fed to 

the finisher picker ; 
F = percentage of any color or stock (as under A and U) 

in the laps from the finisher picker. 

Then, ^. (AXO + (BXD) ^,p„ 

Example. — An intermediate picker is fed with two black 
laps, each weighing 14 oz. per yard, and also with one white 
lap and one red lap, each weighing 13 oz. per yard. The 
■ finisher picker is fed with two of the "mixture" laps made by 
the intermediate, each weighing 13J oz. per yard, and also 
with one white lap weighing 13 oz. per yard and one black lap 
weighing 14 oz. per yard. What is-the percentage of each 
color in the laps made by the finisher picker? 

Solution. — Considering black, the value of A will be 14 oz. 
+ 14 oz. = 28 oz.; B will equal 14 oz. + 14 oz. + 13 oz. + 13 oz., 
or 54 oz. ; C will have a value of 13^ oz. + 13| oz. = 27 oz.; D is 
valued at 14 oz., and the value of E will be 13^ oz. + 13| oz. 
+ 13 oz. + 14 oz. = 54 oz. 



118 COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 

Then, 

-J, (28X27 ) + (54X14) ^^,^^ 1,400 __3^ .... 
F = 54^-54 ^ 100 = -^f- = Slff % of black 

Taking white into consideration, A will have a value of 13 oz. 
and D will equal 13 oz. Other values will be the same as in 
the case of black. 

Then, 

F- »^X^J>+f/X"> X100-f = 36i% of white 

Finally, in calculating the percentage of red, A will equal 
13 oz. and D will have a value of zero; other values are as in 
the previous instances. 
Then, 

a3X27) + (54X0)^^.- 325 ,_,^ , , 
^ = 545<54 X100 = — = 12^V% of red 

Proof.— 51M% +36*% + 125V% = 100%. 

Note. — This example purposely has been made more diversi- 
fied than will likely be encountered in actual mill practice, in 
order that the operation of the formula may be clearly shown. 

When four, laps of uniform weight are employed on the 
intermediate and finisher pickers, a more simple formula 
may be used, as follows: 

Let ^ = number of laps of any color fed to the inter- 
mediate picker; 
jB=number of laps of the same color fed to the 

finisher picker; 
C=number 01 "mixture" laps fed to the finisher 

picker; 
Z)=percentage of color (as under A and B) in laps 
from finisher picker. 
Then, D=6lAC+2iB 

Example. — ^Assume that an intermediate picker is fed 
with two laps of black and two white laps. The finisher 
is fed with one "mixture" lap, one black lap and two laps 
of white. What is the percentage of black in the finished 
laps? 

Solution.— £»=(6iX2Xl) + (25Xl) 
D=12i+2S 
Z?=37S% of black 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



119 



CARE OF PICKERS 

The making of a good lap is an important point. It should 
be perfectly cylindrical when removed from the machine, and 
should feel as firm at one point as at another. It should 
be built so that the layers will unroll easily at the next process 
without sticking together. The defect known as splitting, or 
licking, is due to various causes, such as excessive fan speed, 
improper division of the air-currents, oil dropping on the 
cotton, etc. 

The laps delivered should be as near a uniform weight as 
possible. Each lap from the finisher picker is usually weighed, 
and a variation of ^ lb. in either direction is allowed; that is, 
if laps weighing 35 lb. are delivered when they are the correct 
weight per yard, any laps weighing between 34 J and 35§ lb. 
are allowed to pass. Laps weighing outside this range should 
be put back and ran over again, and if too many of these laps 
are uniformly heavy or light, the regulating screw on the 
evener should be adjusted. 

Below is given a table showing for what numbers of yarn 
certain weights of lap are generally used: 



WEIGHT OF LAPS FOR VARIOUS COUNTS OF YARN 





Weight of Lap per Yard 


Numbers of Yarn 


From Finisher Picker 




Ounces 


Is to 10s 


14.0 


10s to 20s 


13.5 


20s to 30s 


13.0 


30s to 40s 


12.0 


40s to 50s 


11.5 


50s to 60s 


11.0 


60s to 70s 


11.0 


70s to 80s 


11.0 


80s to 90s 


10.0 


90s to 100s 


10.0 


100s to 120s 


9.5 


120s to 150s 


9.0 



A good production for an intermediate or finisher picker 
is about 12,500 lb. per week, allowing from 6 to 10 hr. for 



120 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

stoppages. A finisher picker for making 40-in. laps occupies 
a floor space of about 16 ft. by 6 ft. 8^ in. and requires about 
4 H. P. to drive it. 



COTTON CARDS 

The lap of cotton as it leaves the picker consists of cotton 
fibers crossed in all directions, together with a small quantity 
of foreign matter, consisting more especially of lighter impurities 
such as pieces of leaf, seed, or stalk, and thin membranes from 
the cotton boll. 

The objects of carding are: (1) The disentangling of the 
cotton fibers, or the separation of the bunches, or tufts, of 
fiber into individual fibers, and the commencement of their 
parallelization; (2) the removal of the smaller and lighter 
impurities; (3) changing the formation of cotton from a lap 
to a sliver, accompanied by the reduction of the weight per 
yard of the material. 

Carding is really a straightening and brushing action, the 
fibers being operated on by vAve teeth, known as card clothing 
which have the effect of loosely holding a few fibers at a time 
and striking them as with a comb. 

THE REVOLVING-TOP FLAT CARD 

T'he cm'd that is almost universally adopted for cotton 
carding is known as the revolving-top flat card, sometimes 
spoken of as the revolving flat card. A section through this 
card is shown in Fig. 1. At the back of the card is shown the 
lap 02, which has a rod ai passed through its center and rests 
on the lap roll a. The lap roll a is constructed of wood and is 
either fluted or has a rough surface, sometimes produced by 
covering it with, a coat of paint mixed with sand, in order to 
cause the lap to unroll by friction with the lap roll and without 
any slippage. 

The cotton is drawn over the feed-plate b by the feed-roll bi, 
the single layer, or sheet, leaving the lap at the point 05. The 
feed-plate b extends under the feed-roll bi, with its nose pro- 
jecting upwards in front of the feed-roll almost to the teeth 
shown on the circumference of the licker c. The feed-roll 61 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



121 




122 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

revolves in the direction indicated by the arrow. Above the 
feed -roll rests a small iron rod 62 that is revolved by frictional 
contact with this roll and, since it is covered with flannel, 
collects any fiber or dirt that may be carried upwards over the 
surface of the feed-roll and thus acts as a clearer. It also 
serves to prevent any air-current from passing between the 
feed-roll and the licker cover. 

The lap roll a is positively -geared with the feed-roll 61 in 
such a manner that the feed-roll takes up exactly the amount 
of cotton delivered by the lap roll, without any strain or 
sagging, and as it revolves carries this cotton over the nose 
of the feed-plate so that a fringe is brought under the action 
of the licker c. The distance between the bite of the feed-roll 
and the lower edge of the face of the feed-plate should be from 
t's to I in. longer than the average length of the cotton being 
worked, as it is necessary that the fibers should be free from 
the bite of the feed-roll before the action of the teeth of the 
licker exerts its greatest pull. 

At the nose of the feed-plate, the licker is moving in a down- 
ward direction and the strong, triangular teeth are pointing 
in the direction of its revolution. Since the fringe of cotton is 
held by the roll, it will be disentangled as the teeth pass through 
it. When the cotton is released from the bite of the feed-roll, 
it will be taken by the teeth of the licker. Any short fibers, 
however, that are not sufficiently long to be secured by the 
licker will fall through the space between the two knives d, di, 
which are known as viote knives. 

Underneath the licker is a casing ci known as the licker 
screen. This casing is made of tin and extends across the 
card. The portion of the screen directly under the licker is 
composed of transverse bars ca, triangular in shape with rounded 
comers and set with their bases inverted. As the licker revolves, 
heavy impurities that were not previously taken out will be 
thrown through the openings in the screen. The top of the 
licker is protected by a metal cover cz known as the licker 
caver, or bonnet, which is curved to correspond with the 
curved surface of the licker. 

Situated about midway between the back and front, of the 
card, and a prominent feature in its construction, is the cylinder 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 123 

e, mounted on the shaft ei. This cylinder is usually 50 in. 
in diameter; its width depends on the width of the card, 
being usually 36, 40, or 45 in. The surface of the cylinder 
is covered with card clothing, which is a fabric with wire teeth 
embedded in it and projecting through it at an angle. The 
teeth on the surface of this cylinder point in the direction of 
its motion. A point on the surface of the cylinder travels 
about 2,150 ft. per min. The teeth of the clothing are set 
very closely in the fabric, there being about 72,000 points to the 
square foot and more than 3,000,000 points on the entire 
cylinder. The fibers are transferred to the surface of the cylin- 
der, which is rendered possible by the respective directions of 
motion of the cylinder and licker and by the direction in which 
their teeth are pointing. The cylinder is also revolving at 
more than double the surface speed of the licker, and conse- 
quently the fibers are swept off the surface of the licker where 
the surfaces of the licker and cylinder are closest and carried 
upwards on the surface of the cylinder. 

A cover ei, which is known as the back knife plate, protects 
the cylinder at this point and prevents an air-cuixent from 
being formed by the motion of the cylinder. Above the 
cylinder and partly surrounding its upper portion is a chain 
of fiats /. These are the parts that give the name revolving- 
top flat card to the card. They are made of cast iron, approxi- 
mately T-shaped in section, and are partly covered with card 
clothing about tI in. wide. I'he fiats are so arranged that 
they will be supported immediately above the cylinder without 
coming in contact with it. About forty of the fiats rest on a 
flexible bend at each side of the card. 

The chain of flats is not stationary, but moves at a very 
slow speed, the flats nearest the cylinder moving toward the 
front of the card, while, of course, the flats that are not working 
are carried backwards over the top of those that are at work. 
The cotton is carried upwards and forwards by the cylinder 
to the point where the flats and cylinder are close together. 
When the cylinder reaches the first flat, the cotton on its 
surface has a tendency to project from it on account of the 
centrifugal force of the cylinder, and comes in contact with 
the teeth at the toe of the first flat. The stock is gradually 



124 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

drawn through the teeth of the flat, receiving a combing or 
carding action. Some of the fibers that have not projected 
sufficiently may not have received any carding action, and 
the cylinder carries them forwards to the next flat. The 
fibers that have been carded once may be carded again, with 
such additional fibers as are brought vmder the action of the 
succeeding flat, and so on throughout the entire series. The 
small impurities are left behind, since they are forced between 
the teeth of the wire on the flats or cylinder and remain 
there until the wire is cleaned, or stripped. Thus the short 
fibers and impurities are retained, and the long, clean fibers 
are passed forwards. 

At the front of the card in Fig. 1 is shown a comb j supported 
by arms ji. This comb consists of a thin sheet of steel attached 
to a shaft and having its lower edge serrated. An oscillating 
motion is given to the comb by means of a cam, and at each 
stroke it strips from a flat a portion of the short fiber, leaf, 
and other impurities that adhere to its face. 

After the waste, known as flat strippings, has been removed 
by the comb j, the flats are brushed out by means of the brush 
k. The brush after it has operated on the flats is cleaned by 
means of a hackle comb ki. 

Beneath the cylinder is placed a screen es. This consists 
of circular frames on each side of the card, practically corre- 
sponding to the curvature of the cylinder and connected by 
triangular cross-bars e^. As the cylinder revolves, the fibers 
that project come in contact with the screen, and thus the 
dirt and other foreign substances will be struck off or thrown 
through the openings in the screen. 

Directly in front of the cylinder is the doffer m, which is 
constructed on the same principle as the cylinder. The doffer 
is covered with card clothing in a similar manner to the cylin- 
der, except that the wire on the doffer is more closely set and 
somewhat finer. The doffer is the same width as the cylinder, 
but is of a much smaller diameter, usually 27 in. The doffer 
revolves in the opposite direction to that of the cyUnder, and 
the teeth of the cylinder and doffer point in opposite directions. 
The surface speed of the doffer, which varies from 44 to 107 ft. 
per min., is much less than that of the cylinder. As the cylinder 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 125 

approaches the doffer its surface is covered with separate 
fibers of cotton. Since it is set within about .005 in. from the 
doffer and the doffer is revolving so much more slowly, the 
fibers of cotton are deposited by the cylinder on the face of 
the doffer. 

There is no screen beneath the doffer, as it is unnecessary, 
but placed above it is a protection consisting of a metal cover 
rrn known as the doffer bonnet. At the point ms it extends 
to, and is almost in contact with, a plate of steel es placed over 
the front part of the cylinder. Above this is a plate en known 
as the front knife plate. A draft strip, or making-up piece, me 
is placed in the recess formed by the doffer bonnet and the 
plate es, so as to fit the angle between the doffer and the 
cylinder and thus prevent dirt from entering. It also prevents 
drafts and thus does away with flyings. 

The cotton is carried around by the doffer on its under side 
until it reaches the doffer comb n, which has an oscillating 
motion of about 1,800 or 2,000 strokes per min. The com.b 
consists of a thin sheet of steel attached to a shaft by a number 
of small arms, and has its lower edge serrated. The down- 
ward strokes of th.e comb are in the 'same direction that the 
teeth of the doffer are pointing and close to them, thus making 
the operation of removing the cotton very easy. 

The cotton, when it leaves the doffer, is in a web, which 
must be reduced to a sliver. This is attained by passing the 
cotton through a guide and then through a trumpet o, on the 
other side of which are two calender rolls oi, 02. The object 
of these rolls is to compress the sliver so that it will occupy a 
comparatively small space. 

From the calender rolls 01, 02 the cotton passes through a 
hole in the cover p of an upright framework., known as the 
coiler head. It is drawn through the hole in the cover by two 
coiler calender rolls, which further condense it, and is then deliv- 
ered into an inclined tube on a revolving plate. The end of 
the tube that receives the cotton is in the center of the plate, 
directly under the calender rolls, and the end of the tube 
from which the cotton is delivered is at the outer edge of the 
plate. At the bottom of the coiler head is a plate on which 
rests the can that receives the sliver. In consequence of the 



126 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

sliver being delivered down the rotating tube, it will describe 
a circle and be laid in the can in the form of coils. 

CARD CLOTHING 

Card clothing is the material with which the cylinder, doflfer, 
and flats of the card are covered and by means of which. the 
cotton is opened and the fibers straightened and laid parallel 
to each other. It consists of wire teeth bent in the form of a 
staple and inserted in a suitable foundation material. The 
teeth in addition to being bent in the form of a staple, also 
have a forward bend, or inclination, from a point known as 
the knee of the tooth. The part of the tooth that is on the 
back of the foundation after the tooth has been inserted is 
known as the crown of the tooth. 

The foundation material must be such that it will not 
stretch after it is applied to the card, for if the clothing becomes 
loose it will rise in places, or as is commonly said, will blister. 
The foundation generally used is a fabric woven from cotton 
and woolen yams, although sometimes cotton and linen are 
employed", the linen being used on account of its strength and 
freedom irom stretching.' The fotmdation is generally woven 
three or four ply, in order to obtain the required strength 
and the thickness that is necessary to secure the teeth. Some- 
times the stirface of the foundation is coated with a veneer 
of India rubber. 

The wire teeth actually do the carding, the separating of 
the cotton, fiber from fiber, and the rearranging in a homo- 
geneous mass in which the fibers lie more or less parallel. The 
material from which the wire is made, the number (diameter) 
of the wire, the angle at which the wire passes through the 
foundation, the angle at the knee of the tooth, the relative 
height of the knee and point, and the method of insertion in 
the foundation are all important considerations. 

Clothing is set with many different kinds of wire, such as 
iron, brass, mild steel, tempered steel, tinned steel, etc., but 
for cotton carding hardened and tempered steel, which makes 
a springy, elastic tooth that will not easily be bent out of place 
or broken, is the best material. The wire generally used is 
round in section, but various other shapes have been used. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



127 



After the wire has been set in the foundation it is ground 
to a point, and this alters the form of the section of the tooth 
at the point, or in some cases as far down as the knee. There 
are three methods of grinding the clothing, which give to it the 
following names: (1) top-ground; (2) needle-, or side-ground; 
(3) plow-ground. 

Top-ground wire is obtained by an emery grinding roll 
having a very slight traverse motion, so that the point of the 
tooth is ground down only on the top, producing what is 
known as a flat, or chisel, point. 

In the needle-, or side-, ground wire the thickness of the 
tooth is reduced at the sides for a short distance from the point 
and the wire is also ground down at the top. This form 'of 
point is known as the needle point and is produced by a compara- 
tively narrow emery grinding v/heel that, in addition to having 

COMPARATIVE DIAMETERS OF ENGLISH AND 
AMERICAN STANDARD WIRES 



Birmingham 


Number of Wire 


American 


Diameter in Inches 




Diameter in Inches 


.014 


28 


.012641 


.013 


29 


.011257 


.012 


30 


.010025 


.010 


31 


.008928 


.009 


32 


.007950 


.008 


33 


.007080 


.007 


34 


.006305 


.005 


35 


.005615 


.004 


36 


.005000 



a rotary motion, is rapidly traversed back and forth across 
the clothing. 

Both top and needle grinding are practiced in the mill, the 
former being accomplished with the. so-called dead roll and the 
latter with the traverse grinding roll, but plow grinding is 
usually done by the manufacturers of the clothing. With 
this method of grinding, the thickness of the wire is reduced 
by grinding down each side from the point o^ the tooth to the 
knee. 



128 .COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

The diameter of the wire varies according to the class of 
cotton to be carded. There are two gauges employed for 
numbering wire for card clothing,' nameiy, the Birmingham, 
which is the English standard, and the American standard. 
The accompanying table shows the comparative diameters 
of different numbers of wire of each system: 

For an average grade of cotton. No, 33 wire (American 
gauge) for the doffer and flats and No. 32 for the cylinder 
will give good results, although some carders prefer one number 
finer in each instance; for coarse work the wire is increased in 
diameter, and for finer work decreased. The cylinder should 
always be covered with wire one number coarser than the 
dcfier and fiats, which should have wire of the vsame diameter. 

CALCULATIONS 

Card clothing for cotton cards is made in long continuous 
strips 1 to 2 in. in width known as fillet or filleting, and in 
narrow sheets known as tops; the former is used for covering 
the cylinder and doffer and the latter is used for the flats. 
Fillet clothing is made rib set; that is, with the crowns of the 
teeth, on the back of the clothing, running in staggered ribs, 
or rows, lengthwise of the fillet. The teeth are set into tops 
so that the crowns of the teeth on the back side of the founda- 
tion are twilled; that is, they are set in diagonal lines like a 
piece of twilled cloth. 

Card clothing in America, unless especially ordered, is made 
with 4 crowns in 1 in. on the back of the clothing, or 8 
points in 1 in. on the face, and is known as 8-crown clothing. 
From this it will be seen that a 2-in. fillet will have 8 ribs on 
the back and a l|-in. fillet, 6 ribs, etc. Sometimes in special 
cases where a large number of points per square foot are 
desired, the clothing is made 10-crown; that is, with 10 points 
per in. in width on the face of the clothing, or 5 crowns per in. 
on the back of the clothing. 

The term nogg, which is used in connection with card 
clothing, refers to the distance between the first tooth of one 
line of twill and the next line. Owing to the manner in which 
the teeth are set in fillet clothing, there are always one-half the 
number of teeth per nogg and twice the number of noggs per 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 129 

inch as in clothing for tops with the same number of points 
per square foot. The number of noggs per inch always governs 
the number of points per square foot in the clothing. If more 
points per square foot are wanted, the noggs per inch are 
increased; if fewer points are wanted, the noggs per inch are 
decreased, the crowns always remaining the same. 

The points per square foot in card clothing may be found 
by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the crowns per inch by the points per tooth 
(2), by the teeth per nogg, by the noggs per inch, and by the number 
of square inches in a square foot {144)- 

Example 1 . — Find the points per square foot in a sample of 

rib-set card clothing; the crowns per inch are 4, the teeth per 

nogg 3, and the noggs per in. 16. 

Solution. — 

4 crowns per m. 

2 points per tooth 
8 points per in. 

3 teeth per nogg 
24 

1 6 noggs per in. 

iTI 

24 

3 8 4 points per sq. in. 

1 4 4 in. per sq. ft. 
153 6 
1536 
3 84 



5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft. 

Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch, 
thus, 55,296-^16 = 3,456, it will be noticed that with 8-crown 
fillet (4 crowns per inch) each nogg increases the points 
per square foot by 3,456. Prom this it will be seen that in 
order to find the points per square foot in 8-crown fillet 
clothing it is only necessary to multiply the noggs per inch 
by 3,456. 

Example 2. — Find the points per square foot in a sample 
of twill-set card clothing, the crowns per inch being 4, teeth 
per nogg 6, and the noggs per inch 8. 



130 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Solution. — 4 crowns per in. 

2 points per tooth 
8 points per in. 
6 teeth per nogg 
48 
8 noggs per in. 
3 8 4 points per sq. in. 
1 44 
1 .5 3 6 
153 6 
3 84 _ 

5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft. 
Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch, 
thus, 55,296-^8 = 6,912, it will be noticed that with 8-crown 
twill-set clothing each nogg increases the points per square 

POINTS PER SQUARE FOOT IN RIB-SET 
CLOTHING 



Noggs per Inch 


Points per Square 
Foot 


American Number 
of Wire 


10 


34,560 


28 


11 


38,016 


28 


12 


41,472 


29 


13 


44,928 


29 


14 


48,384 


30 


15 


51,840 


30 


■ 16 


55,296 


31 


17 


58,752 


31 


18 


62,208 


32 


19 


65,664 


32 


20 


69,120 


33 


21 


72,576 


33 


22 


76,032 


34 


23 


79,488 


34 


24 


82,944 


35 


25 


86,400 


35 


26 


89,856 


36 


27 


93,312 


36 



foot by 6,912. To find the points per square foot in twill-set 
clothing multiply the noggs per inch by 6,912. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



131 



In the preceding table is given the number of points per 
square foot of 8-crown, rib-set fillet (4 crowns per inch) with 
3 teeth per nogg and with from 10 to 27 noggs per in. The 
table also shows the numbers of wire (American gauge) gener- 
ally used in each case. 

In the following table is given the number of points per 
square foot of 8-crown, twill-set clothing with 6 teeth per nogg 
and with from 5 to 13 noggs per inch. 

POINTS PER SQUARE FOOT IN TWILL-SET CLOTfflNG 



Noggs per Inch 


Points per Square 
Foot 


American Number 
of Wire 


5 


34,560 


28 


6 


41,472 


29 


7 


48,384 


30 


8 


55,296 


31 


9 


62,208 


32 


10 


69,120 


33 


11 


76,032 


34 


12 


82,944 


35 


13 


89,856 


36 



For an average grade of cotton the doffer should have 20 or 21 
noggs per in. and the fiats 10 or 10| noggs per in., which in 
each case would give 69,120 or 72,576 points per sq. ft. For the 
main cylinder 18 or 19 noggs per in. are suitable, which would 
give 62,208 or 65,664 points per sq. ft. The number of points 
may of course be varied to suit the class of work, but it is 
generally desirable to have the same number of points in the 
doffer and fiats; and the main cylinder should have a slightly 
smaller ntmiber than either. 

English Method of Numbering Card Clothing. — English 
card clothing for tops is often made with the teeth inserted 
according to a method known as the plain, or open set, in 
which the crowns, or backs, of the teeth overlap each other 
exactly as bricks in a wall. The clothing is made 10-crown; 
that is, with 10 points per in. across the card. This method 
of setting the teeth is often used in America when a large 
number of points per square inch is desired. 



132 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



The English system of numbering clothing is based on the 
plain-set clothing, and designates the clothing by the counts, 
each count being equal to 720 points per sq. ft. The accom- 
panying table shows the points per square foot in card clothing 
of various counts and also the number of wire (American gauge) 
that is usually used. 

ENGLISH COUNTS OF CARD CLOTHING 



English Counts 


Roints per Square 
Foot 


American Number 
of Wire 


60s 


43,200 


28 


70s 


50,400 


30 


80s 


57,600 


31 


90s 


64,800 


32 


100s 


72,000 


33 


110s 


79,200 


34 


120s 


86,400 


35 


130s 


93,600 


36 



CLOTHING FLATS 

The clothing for the fiats is made in sheets with a 1-in. space 
between the sections of wire; these are afterwards cut up to 
form the tops. The method of fastening the top to the fiat is to 
employ a steel clamp of the same length as the clothing and 
bent in a U shape. One edge of this clamp in some cases is 
serrated, so as to grip the fotmdation, and the other edge 
engages the edge of the fiat, holding the clothing and flat 
securely together. 

CLOTHING CYLINDER AND DOFFER 

Both the cylinder and doffer, which are covered with filleting, 
have parallel rows of holes drilled across them, which are 
plugged with hardwood. The fillet is wound spirally and 
secured by means of tacks driven m the hardwood plugs. 
Cylinders are usually covered with 2-in. and doffers with If-in. 
filleting. There are several methods of shaping the tail-ends, 
as they are called, but the best is that known as the inside taper, 
since it is stronger and neater than any other. Three lengths, 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 133 

each equal to one-half the circumference of the cylinder of the 
doff er, as the case may be, are first marked out on the end of the 
fillet; in the case of a 50-in. cylinder these distances would be 
6.545 ft. each. For the first distance, the fillet is cut exactly 
through the middle; for the second distance, it is tapered from 
half the width of the fillet to the full width; for the third dis- 
tance, a cut is made on the opposite side of the fillet exactly 
half way through it and the fillet tapered out to its full width 
again. After one tail-end is cut, the end of the fillet is tacked 
to the plugs in the cylinder and the fillet wound around the 
cylinder spirally; the other tail-end is then cut and fastened 
to the cylinder in the same manner as the first tail-end. 

The length of filleting to cover a cylinder, doffer, or other roll 
may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the roll by its width {both 
expressed in inches) and by 3.14I6 and divide the product thus 
obtained by the width of the fillet multiplied by 12. The result 
thus obtained will be the required number of feet of filleting. 

Note. — An allowance must be made for tapering the tail- 
ends, generally a length equal to the circuiiiference of the roll 
being sufficient. 

Example. — What length of 2-in. filleting is required to 
clothe a C3dinder 50 in. in diameter and 40 in. wide? 

50X40X3.1416 

Solution. — = 261.8 ft. 

2X12 

Adding a length equal to the circtmiference of the cylinder, 
which is 13.09 ft., the length required will be 274.89 ft. 

SPEED CALCULATIONS 

If the driving shaft makes 340 revolutions per min. and 
carries a 10-in. pulley, the pulley en. Fig. 2, will be driven as 
follows: 

340X10 



20 



= 170 rev. per min. 



As the cylinder is 50| in. in diameter, allowing | in. for 

clothing, its surface speed will therefore be as follows: 

170X501X3.1416 

= 2,258.679 ft. per min. 

12 



134 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



4"Dia. 



/8"D/a. 




ZO"S>/a. 



■B-Diek 



%3 ^ 



Fig. 2 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 135 

Licker. — The diameter of ei5, Fig. 2, is 18 inches and that 
of C6 is 7 in., so that when the cyUnder makes 170 rev. per min., 
the revolutions per minute made. by the licker will be as follows: 

170X18 

=437. 142 rev. per mi n. 

7 

As the licker is usually 9 in. in diameter, its surface speed 
will be as follows: 

437.112X9X3.1416 

— = 1,029.993 ft. per mm. 

12 

Doffer. — The 4-inch pulley ce. Pig. 2, on the end of the licker 
drives the 18-inch barrow pulley mj, which is compounded with 
the doflfer change gear ms. This gear, for the purpose of calcu- 
lation, will be assumed to have 22 teeth; the gear on the end 
of the doflfer contains 190 teeth. With the licker making 
437.142 rev. per min., the speed of the doffer will be as follows: 

437.142X4X22 

— = 11.248 rev. per min. 

18X190 

As the doffer is 24f in. in diameter, allowing | in. for clothing, 
its surface speed will be as follows: 

11.248X241 X3.1416 

= 72.881 ft. per min. 

12 

Flats. — The 5-in. pulley en, Fig. 2, drives a pulley 10-in. in 
diameter, not shown. This pulley carries a single-threaded 
worm that meshes with a 18-tooth worm-gear. On the shaft 
with this worm-gear is a single-threaded -uorm that drives a 
42-tooth worm-gear on the shaft of the 8-inch pulley driving 
flats. The speed of the flats, therefore, will be 

170X5X1X1X8X3.1416 ^ ^^^ . 

— = 3.179 in. per mm. 

10X16X42 

Draft. — The following examples illustrate the manner of 
finding the draft: 

Example 1. — Find the draft between the lap roll and feed- 
roll, referring to Fig. 2 for data. 

2 5X48 

Solution. — — = 1.176, draft 

6X17 



136 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Example 2. — Find the draft between the feed-roll and doffer, 

using a 16 change gear at b^. 

24X40X120 

Solution. — - = 72, draft 

2.5X40X16 

Example 3. — Find the draft between the doffer and the bot- 
tom calender roll. 

3X190 

Solution. — ■ = 1.13, draft 

24X21 

ExAJNiPLE 4. — Find the draft between the bottom calender 

roll and the coil er .calender rolls, when a 27-tooth gear on the 

calender-roll shaft drives a 17-tooth gear on the vertical shaft 

of coiler. 

2X24X1^X27 

Solution. — = 1 .059 , draft 

3X24X18X17 , 

Example 5. — Find the total draft of the card, figuring from 
the coiler calender rolls Pi, to the lap roll a, using a 16 change 
gear at b^, and considering the vertical shaft of the coiler to be 
driven as stated in example 4. 

Solution. — 

2X24X 18X27X 190X40X 120X48 

: = 101.433, draft 

6X24X18X17X21X40X16X17 

Proof. — To prove that intermediate drafts equal total 
draft, 1.176X72X1.130X1.059 = 101.325. 

Waste. — The amount of waste made in carding shotild not, 
as a rule, exceed 5% and the work of the card should be closely 
watched, especially in respect to the waste under the cylinder, 
which should be examined at frequent intervals to see whether 
it contains too much good cotton. 

Productson. — The production of the card varies according to 
the class of work, a good production on low numbers being from 
700 to 1,000 lb. per wk. ; for fine yams it is much lower. The 
weights of delivered sliver suitable for certain classes of work 
are as given in the accompanying table. 

Weight and Horsepower. — The weight of a single revolving- 
flat card is about 5,000 lb. It requires from f to 1 H. P. to 
drive it after the initial strain of starting, which requires much 
greater power. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 
WEIGHTS OF COTTON CARD SLIVERS 



137 



Variety of Cotton 



Numbers 


Weight per Yard 




Grains 


Is to 10s 


70 


10s to 15s 


65 


los to 20s 


60 


20s to 30s 


55 


30s to 40s 


50 


40s to 60s 


50 


60s to 70s 


45 


70s to 100s 


40 


40s to 60s 


55 


60s to 70s 


50 


70s to 100s 


45 


70s to 100s 


35 


100s upwards 


30 



Average American < 

Allan-seed and Peelers < 

Egyptian < 

Sea-Island < 



CARE OF CARDS 

Stripping. — The number of times that a card should be 
stripped within a stated period depends on two factors. One 
is that the greater the weight of cotton that is put through the 
card per da3'', the more frequently it should be stripped; the 
other is that on fine work the clothing should be kept as free 
as possible from short fiber and particles of foreign matter, so 
that when running fine work the card should receive more 
frequent stripping, notwithstanding the fact that a lighter 
weight of cotton is being put through the card than in coarse 
^work. It may be stated as a common practice that for fine 
work the card should be stripped three times a day unless a very 
large production is being obtained, when it is advisable to strip 
four or even five times per day* with a medium production 
and where a very high grade of work is not called for, it is not 
necessary to strip the cylinder and doffer more than twice a day. 

Grinding. — Grinding is the process of sharpening the teeth of 
the card wire of the cylinder, doffer, or flats by means of rolls 
called grinding rolls, which are of two kinds — the dead roll and 
the traverse grinder. The dead roll consists principally of a 
hollow shell mounted on a shaft and covered with emery 
fillet wound spirally on its surface. When grinding, a slight 



138 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

traversing motion is given to the dead roll, which grinds the 
backs of the teeth with a slight tendency toward grinding 
the sides. 

The traverse grinder consists of a roll about 4 in^ wide covered 
with emery fillet and mounted so as to slide on a hollow barrel, 
or shell, of large diameter. Since the grinding roll presses 
against the clothing, the result of its traverse motion is to cause 
the teeth that are in contact with it to be bent, or inclined, 
toward the side of the card to which the roll is moving. The 
result of this is that the sides of the points of the teeth are 
ground down slightly, as well as the top of the points. In con- 
sequence of the roll being so narrow, it requires a longer time to 
grind the card with this mechanism than with the dead roll, 
other conditions being the same, but the results are so much 
better that it is very largely used. The length of time required 
for grinding depends to a great extent on the condition of the 
wire, since if the points of the teeth are dulled considerably, a 
longer time will be required than if the clothing is in compara- 
tively good condition. The degree of coarseness of the emery 
on the grinding roU also governs, to some extent, the time 
required for grinding, since coarse emery cuts much faster than 
fine emery. The time is also governed by the extent of pressure 
exerted by the grinding roll on the clothing. If the grinding 
roll is set so that it presses heavily on the wire, the grinding will 
be accomplished in less time, although there is more danger of 
injuring the wire; such grinding is known as heavy grinding. 
If the grinding roll presses only lightly against the clothing, 
a greater time will be required to secure the proper point on the 
teeth, but there is less danger of injuring the wire; this method 
of grinding is spoken of as light grinding. 

As a general rule it may be stated that from one-half to one 
working day, or from 5 to 10 hr., is the usual time required for 
properly grinding the cylinder and doflfer of a card. 

The interval between the times of grinding varies. Generally 
speaking, it is advisable to grind frequently and lightly rather 
than at more remote intervals and heavily. 

Setting. — The setting of the different parts of the card 
requires careful attention and is one of the most important 
points in the management of the card room. The principal 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 139 

places where setting is required are as follows: between the 
cylinder and the flats, between the licker and the cylinder, and 
between the doffer and the cylinder. Other places for setting 
are between the mote knives and the liclcer, between the feed- 
plate and the licker, between the (cylinder screen and cylinder, 
between the licker screen and the licker, between the back 
knife plate and the cylinder, between the front knife plate and 
the cylinder, between the flat-stripping comb and the flats, and 
between the doffer comb and the doffer. 

The exact setting, or distance between certain parts, of the 
card is determined by the use of gauges; two, and in some cases 
three, kinds are used. The first one is about 9 in. long and If 
in. wide and contains four leaves pivoted together. These 
leaves are made of thin sheet steel and are usually nrs^, T^m, 
T^, and jhhs in. thick, respectively. The second gauge 
which is used exclusively for flat setting, consists of a strip of 
sheet steel about 2J in. long and 1^ in. in width bent at right 
angles about f in. from one end, with a handle attached to this 
end. The other end is the part used for setting and is usually 
tMv, jihs, or t^ in. thick. The third gauge consists of a 
quadrant or semicircle mounted on a shaft and is used for 
setting the top of the cylinder screen to the cylinder and licker, 
and also in some cases to set the licker screen to the licker. 

Since the leaf and flat gauges are very thin, they are easily 
damaged, and in this condition are of little use, producing faulty 
settings; consequently, great care should be used to prevent 
the faces becoming dented, bent, or injured in any way. 

The flats are set by means of the flat gauge described, while 
the card is stopped, and preferably when other machinery in the 
room is also stopped, so as to prevent any vibration of the floor. 
The flats are usually set about t^ in. from the cylinder at 
the heel of the flat. The flats at the front of the card should 
be set the closest to the cylinder, while the space between the 
flats and the cylinder should gradually increase toward the back. 
If a No. 10 gauge is used, the fiats at the back are set loosely to 
the gauge; those at the top and center, a little closer; and those 
at the front are set still closer. 

The leaf gauge is used for setting the licker and it is generally 
set to the cylinder with a No. 10 gauge. 



140 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

The doffer is usually set to the cylinder with a No. 5 or No. 7 
leaf gauge by inserting the gauge between the doffer and the 
cylinder where they are closest. When a No. 7 gauge is used, 
the doffer is usually set tight to the gauge. 

The position of the doffer with relation to the cylinder is an 
important matter and should receive careful attention. If the 
doffer is set too far away from the cylinder, a patchy or cloudy 
web will result, owing to the doffer not taking the fibers evenly 
from the cylinder. 

The mote knives are set to the licker by means of the leaf 
gauge and the number of the gauge varies from 12 to 17. 

The leaf gauge is used to set the feed-plate and is inserted 
between the licker and the face of the feed-plate. The number 
of the gauge varies from 12 to 20. 

The cylinder screen is set farther from the cylinder at the 
front than at any other point, the distance being about .25 in., 
and the screen at the center and back is set about .032 in. from 
the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the ends of the fibers 
that have been thrown out by centrifugal force from coming 
in contact with the front edge of the screen and thus being 
removed from the cylinder as fly, which would readily occur if 
this setting were too close. 

As the licker and cylinder screens are very close to each other 
at their nearest point, and as the front end of the licker screen 
m_ust be set only a short distance below this point, it is nearly 
impossible to make an accurate setting with the licker in posi- 
tion. The best method is to remove the licker and use a quad- 
rant gauge, the curvature of the outside surface of which should 
correspond exactly to the curvature of the surface of the licker. 
This gauge is mounted loosely on a shaft of exactly the same 
size as the licker shaft. The ends of the shaft rest in the licker 
bearings and the screens are set to the proper distance from the 
quadrant gauge by sliding the quadrant along the shaft. The 
front edge of the licker screen at the point where it is hinged to 
the cylinder screen is usually set about .011 in. from the licker. 
The nose, or portion of the licker screen with which the fibers 
first come in contact, is set ^ to i in. from the teeth of the 
licker, according to the amount of cleaning action desired at this 
point and the staple of the cotton being used. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 141 

The back knife plate is set to the cyUnder to about a No. 17 
leaf gauge at the lower edge and a No. 32 at the upper edge. 
This allows the fibers to free themselves and Stand out a little 
from the cylinder before coming in contact with the fiats. 

The front knife plate is also set with the leaf gauge, its dis- 
tance from the cylinder at the lower edge being about -.017 in. 
The space between the upper edge of the plate and the cylinder 
depends on the amount of waste that it is desired to remove as 
fiat strippings, but the usual setting is about .032 in. If the 
plate is set farther from the cylinder, more and heavier strip- 
pings will be made, and if moved too far away, the strips will 
form one continuous web instead of being connected by merely 
a few fibers. If the plate is set too close, some of the short 
fibers and dirt removed from the cotton by the fiats will in turn 
, be taken from the flats by the knife and carried around by the 
cylinder, thus producing bad work. 

The distance between the toe of the flat and the stripping 
comb is determined with the leaf gauge and is usually about 
.007 in.; although this setting should be close enough to allow 
the comb to remove the strippings from the fiats, it should not 
be so close that the comb will strike the wire and damage it. 

The doffer comb is usually set to the dofEer at the point where 
they are closest to a No. 7 leaf gauge. 

The doffer comb, in addition to being adjustable as to its 
distance from the doffer, is adjustable as to the position of 
its stroke, which is changed by altering the relative positions 
of the comb and the eccentric from which it receives its motion. 
If the web should follow the doffer instead of being removed by 
the comb, the position of the stroke should be lowered; if the 
web sags between the doffer and the trumpet, as it sometimes 
does, owing to atmospheric changes, etc., the position of the 
stroke should be raised. 

The settings given are used only as a basis. The settings 
of the various parts of the card vary according to the stock 
being used and the quality and kind of finished work. 

Management. — In the management of cards many points 
should be watched, but more especially those that have for 
their objects: (1) the production of good work; (2) turning 
off as large a production as is consistent with the quality of the 



142 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

work required; (3) economy by avoiding unnecessary waste 
and keeping down the expenses of wages, power, supplies, etc.; 
(4) maintaining the machinery in good condition. 



DRAWING ROLLS 

COMMON ROLLS 

The principle of roll drafting is the most important feature 
of parallelizing and attenuating machinery. Drawing rolls 
are of two kinds — common and metallic. 

Common top rolls are made in short lengths and are covered 
with leather. Bottom rolls of the common type are almost 
always constructed of steel, and are fluted; that is, grooves 
are cut lengthwise in the surface of the rolls at certain intervals. 
These flutes aid the bottom rolls in obtaining a better grip on 
the cotton as it passes between them and the top rolls. Top 
rolls may be made with one or two bosses, being known as 
single-boss and double-boss, respectively; the boss in both 
single- and double-boss rolls may be detachable. When the 
boss of a roll is detachable, the roll is known as a loose-boss, or 
shell, roll; when the boss is not detachable, the roll is known as 
a solid roll. 

Covering of Top Rolls. — As two metal rolls revolving in con- 
tact would tend to crush the delicate cotton fibers, a leather 
covering is necessary for top rolls of the common type. The 
iron surface of the roU is first covered with a specially woven 
woolen cloth, which is cemented to the roll, giving a good, 
elastic foundation. When a thin leather covering that fits 
very tightly is drawn over this foundation, the roll is capable of 
gripping the fibers and, owing to the yielding quaUty of the 
leather and cloth, does not damage them. 

The cloth that lies underneath the leather should be made of 
the finest and best wool, and it should not be possible to detect 
by the hand the slightest variation of thickness. In mills 
covering their own rolls, the old leather should be removed and 
the cloth carefully examined. If it shows any evidence of dis- 
integration, or wear, or an uneven surface, it should bp con- 
denuaed and removed. When roils are sent out to be covered. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 143 

it is considered advisable to cut the cloth with a knife in order 
to prevent the same cloth being used again. 

In covering rolls, the cloth is cut into strips slightly narrower 
than the boss of the roll. A strip of this cloth is then laid fiat 
on a table and a clean roll, the boss of which is covered with 
glue, is placed on the end of the strip and the cloth wound on the 
roll. The roll during this operation should be neither hot nor 
cold — simply warm. The cloth is cut with a sharp knife at the 
point where it begins to pass around the roll the second time. 
After the cloth is put on and the seam pressed together with the 
fingers, the roll should be put into evening, or smoothing, rolls 
for the purpose of smoothing out any lumps or foreign matter 
that may have been in the glue, thereby producing a perfectly 
true and even surface. 

The substance that is most suitable for covering top rolls is 
the skin of the lamb or the sheep, or the skin of the goat. The 
outside layer of these skins is thin, tough, and very elastic. 
The color should be taken into consideration when selecting 
a skin. English skins usually have a color known as the natural 
oak-bark color, which is a light brown; a reddish color is given 
to others by means of dye. American skins are usually of a 
dark-cream color. The darker the shades the more the grain 
defects are hidden from view. 

The size and color of skins depend on the size and age of 
the animal from which they are obtained. Lambskin is used 
for the more delicate work, as it is finer than sheepskin; sheep- 
skin is used for the coarser work. 

When placing the leather covering on rolls, the skins are cut 
into strips rather wider than the boss of the roll so as to allow 
for burning off the ends. The strips are next cut into small 
pieces just sufficient to fold around the boss of the roll, and their 
ends are beveled to make a joint that will not be perceptible 
to the touch. The beveled ends are then carefully joined 
together with cement. The leather tube, or cot, is placed in a 
press for a short time in order to insure a perfect joint. 

The next operation is to draw the cot over the boss of the 
roll — an operation somewhat similar to drawing the finger of 
a glove on the finger. The roll is then revolved at a high rate 
of speed and any part of the leather that projects over the boss 



144 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

is burned off by friction with a piece of hard wood. The charred 
portion of the skin forms a collar at the ends of each boss. 
The roll must be placed in the machine so that it will not run 
against the joint, and in some cases the way the lap runs is 
marked by a dot of ink on the grain side of the skin. In putting 
cots on double-boss rolls care should be taken that the bevels 
run the same way and that the cots are of the same thickness. 
Varnishing of Top Rolls. — It is the general practice in almost 
all mills to varnish the rolls that perform the heaviest work; 
namely, the rolls of the drawing frame, comber, sliver lap, 
ribbon lap, and in some cases the slubber. Varnished rolls 
should present a smooth, hard surface that has dried without 
cracking and that does not cause fiber or dust to adhere to it. 
Almost every mill has its own system of preparing varnish, and 
foil coverers have for sale various compositions for this purpose. 
Three recipes for preparing varnish are: 

1. 9 oz. of fish glue; 2 qt. of acetic acid; 2 teaspoonfuls of oil 
of Origanum. This mixture should stand for about 2 da. in 
order that the glue may be thoroughly dissolved, after which 
it may be thickened with fine pov/dered paint of any color 
that may be desired. 

2. 1| lb. of fish glue; | lb. of gum arable; 5 lb. of powdered 
alum; 2 lb. of acetic acid; 4 lb. of water. This mixture should 
be thoroughly dissolved over a slow fire, after which it may be 
thickened with paint in the same manner as in the first recipe. 

3. 1 oz. of ordinary glue; f oz. of fish glue; j oz. of gum 
arabic. This mixture should be dissolved in 2| gi. of water 
and allowed to simmer for 1 hr. over a slow fire, after which 
6 oz. of thoroughly ground paint of any color may be added to 
thicken it. 

Generally one coat of varnish is put on the rolls, although 
sometimes where fine numbers are required, two coats are put 
on, and two or even three coats are put on new or newly-covered 
rolls before they are put into the frame. 

METALLIC ROLLS 

The most practical substitute for common rolls is to have 
flutes in a top steel roll corresponding to those in a bottom roll. 
The flutes of the rolls mesh together, but in order to prevent 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 145 

the teeth of one roll from reaching to the bottom of the spaces 
between the teeth of the other roll, the rolls are held slightly 
apart by collars. On a 16-pitch roll the diameter of the collars 
is .07 in. less than the diameter of the fluted section, and as both 
rolls are the same, the amount of overlap is .07 in. With a 
24-pitch roll the collars are .06 in. less in diameter than the 
fluted section, and on a 32-pitch roll they are .044 in. less. 
Thus, the amount of overlap with 24-pitch rolls is .06 in. and 
with 32-pitch rolls, .044 in. This amount of overlap is sufficient 
to grip the sliver. 

Advantages of Metallic Rolls. — The top rolls of a metallic 
set are positively driven by the flutes of the lower roll meshing 
with the flutes of the upper roll. The cost of roll covering and 
subsequent varnishing is saved, and the bad work that arises 
from imperfectly varnished rol's is entirely obviated. 

It is claimed that, as metallic rolls run on collars, friction 
is great'y reduced; that licking, from the presence of electricity 
and atmospheric changes, is prevented and that consequent 
waste is avoided. However, metallic rolls at the present time 
are not used to any large extent except on drawing frames, 
sliver-lap machines, and slubbers. 

SETTING OF DRAWING ROLLS 

One of the most important points in relation to drawing rolls 
is the position of one pair of rolls relative to another, which is 
governed by the length of the staple and bulk of cotton being 
used. In setting rolls, there is one broad principle that must 
always be followed: the distance between, the centers of each 
pair of rolls must always exceed the average length of the 
staple of the cotton being used. 

Rapidly-revolving rolls, also, require wider settings than those 
having slow speed. When the ends put up at the back are 
heavily twisted, the settings are wider on the same machine 
than when the ends fed are slightly twisted. Harsh, wiry 
cotton requires wider settings than smooth, silky cotton, 
because it does not draw so easily. 

As the rolls are set according to the staple of the cotton used, 
it is evident that the rolls intended to run on coarse counts from 
short-staple cotton, must be. smaller in diameter than those 



146 



COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



^Aor/Sfaf>/e 






^pinningi Frame 



Mec/ii/m Stafi/e 






lonffS^/^9 




JackRoi^'/tgffame-Deat/WeifhKlf 




COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



147 



intended to work long-staple cotton, in order that the centers 
of the rolls may be brought near enough together. The dia- 
gram given in the accompanying illustration shows the settings 
and diameters of rolls for different kinds of cotton. These 
settings will vary, however, according to conditions. 

The settings given in the accompanying table for American 
cotton of about 1-in. staple are taken from actual measurements 
in a mill making an average of 32s. 



DRAWING-ROLL SETTINGS FOR AMERICAN COTTON 




Speed 

of 
Front 
Roll 


Weight 
of Sliver 
at Back 


Distance Between 
Centers 




Front 

and 

Second 

Inches 


Second 

and 

Third 

Inches 


Third 
and 
Back 

Inches 


First drawings.. . 
Second drawings. 
Third drawings. . 

Slubbing 

Intermediate. . . . 
Roving 


411 
411 
411 
162 
143 
116 
125 


68 grains 
68 grains 
68 grains 
68 grains 
.57-hank 
1.61-hank 
5- hank 


1/^ 

If 
li 

lA 

11 

lA 


If 
If 
If 

\i 
. If 


If 
If 
If 


Spinning. 





Each case of roll setting must be judged by its requirements. 
The table shows ordinary settings on the intermediates, roving, 
and spinning, and excessively wide settings on the drawing and 
slubber on account of the unusually heavy sliver and high speed. 



WEIGHTING OF TOP ROLLS 

In order to maintain a grip on the fibers, the top rolls must 
have a constant pressure on the bottom rolls. This pressure 
is maintained by means of weights, light weights beijig applied 
to slow-running frames and heavier ones to frames where the 
rolls run at high speeds. 

Self-weighting consists of having the top roll heavy enough 
to maintain the necessary pressure on the fiber, and is used on 



148 



CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION 



the center and back rolls of fine roving frames, spinning frames, 
and mules intended for very fine spinning. 

Dead weighting consists of hanging a weight of suitable 
magnitude directly from the top 
roll. 

Lever weighting, which is a form of 
dead weighting, consists of exerting 
pressure by means of a weight acting 
through a lever. By this means a 
smaller weight may be used and the 
same pressure obtained as when a 

\u. larger weight is employed in the 

system of dead weighting. 
This will be made more clear by reference to the accompany- 
ing illustration, and the following data: The weight of w is 
4 lb.; the distance of wf is 7J in.; pf, f in.; jk, f in.; kl. If in.; 
Im, I in. ; mn,. I5 in. ; In, 1 in. ; jl, 2 in. The total pressure will 
equal 

Weight X'Zf/ 4X7-J 

•— = = 40 Id., total weight on all rolls 

Pf i 

Part of this 40 lb. will be distributed on j and the remainder 
on the point g. 

The pressure on j will equal 

klX^O lfX40 




jl 



- = 27|lb. 

12| lb., or the pressure at 



■ 121 lb. 



= 4.166 lb. 



The pressure at g equals 40— 27^ 
g will equal 

j^X40 ^ fX40 

jl ~ 2 ' 

The pressure at n will equal 

^wX12|_|Xl2| 

mn 1| 

The pressure at m will equal 12|— 4.166 = 8.33 lb., or the 

pressure at m will equal 

lnXl2i 1X121 „^^,^ 
= = 8.33 lb. 

mn 1| 

Metallic drawing rolls require less weighting than common 
drawing rolls. The principal reason for this is that the former 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 149 

grip and hold more securely the fibers being operated on than 
do the latter. This is due to the fact that both the top and 
bottom rolls are fluted in the case of metallic rolls and the 
flutes interlocking results in the fibers being more securely 
held. When common rolls are used, the top roll must be 
weighted sufficiently to cause it to press firmly on the bottom 
roll in order that the fibers may be properly gripped. An 
example of the relative weighting of metallic rolls and common 
rolls, assuming that drawing frames are being considered, is as 
follows: 

Single-Boss Metallic Rolls 
Front rolls, 36 lb. (18 lb. at each end) 
Second roll, 32 lb. (16 lb. at each end) 
Third roll, 28 lb. (14 lb. at each end) 
Back roll, 28 lb. (14 lb. at each end) 

Single-Boss Common Rolls 
Front roll, 44 lb. (22 lb. at each end) 
Second roll, 40 lb. (20 lb. at each end) 
Third roll, 36 lb. (18 lb. at each end) 
Back roll, 32 lb. (16 lb. at each end) 

This weighting is subject to some variation, of course, 
depending on the character of the stock being run, etc. 

SCOURING ROLLS 

The cleanliness of the fluted as well as the leather-covered 
rolls is an important matter, since if the dirt and other foreign 
matter that collects in the flutes and bearings of the rolls is not 
removed, considerable waste and consequent loss of production 
and bad work will result. 

After the rolls have been removed they should be rubbed 
with a piece of card fillet in order to remove any dirt, hard 
oil, or other substances that may collect in the flutes. After 
cleaning the roll in this manner it should be covered with a 
paste made of oil and whiting and thoroughly scoured by 
rubbing with another piece of card fillet, care being taken 
not to rub around the circumference of the roll but length- 
wise, so that the wires of the card fillet will follow the 
crrooves of the flutes and clean them. 



150 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

After this the roll should be wiped with a piece of dry waste, 
covered with dry whiting, in order to thoroughly dry the flute 
before the rolls are replaced. In some cases dry whiting is 
used in place of the paste. Care should be taken not to allow 
any of the whiting to collect in the flutes or bearings of the roll. 

After the rolls have been scoured they should be examined 
in order to ascertain whether there are any rough places; if any 
are found they should be smoothed by using a piece of pumice 
stone, a piece of very fine emery cloth, or a fine flute file. In 
most cases the pumice stone or emery cloth will be found 
sufficient, and the file should not be used unless absolutely 
necessary. 

DRAWING FRAMES 

The drawing frame follows the card, except when combed 
yam is being made, when it follows the comber. 

The objects of the drawing frame are to lay the fibers parallel 
and to correct, so far as possible, any unevenness in the sliver. 
These objects are accomplished by drafting and doubling. 

The number of drawing frames through which the cotton is 
passed is governed by the class of work to be produced and the 
number of preceding processes through which the cotton has 
passed. If the sliver comes direct from the cards there are 
usually two processes for coarse counts, three for medium 
counts, and four for fine counts. If the sliver has passed 
through the sliver- and ribbon-lap machines and the comber, 
there are generally only two processes unless for very high 
counts, when three, and even four, are used. 

Fig. 1 is a cross-section of one delivery of a drawing frame; 
the arrows in this figure indicate the direction in which the 
stock passes through the machine. Usually six cans similar to 
a are placed behind each delivery, each sliver passing through 
the guide b, over the plate c, and the spoon d, there being one 
spoon for each sliver. The slivers next pass over another 
guide plate e and then to the four sets of rolls, /, /i, /2, /a, where 
the necessary draft is inserted. From these drawing rolls the 
slivers pass to the trumpet g, where they are combined into one, 
then through the calender rolls h, hi, through the coiler tube i, 
and to the can j. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



151 




152 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



The drawing rolls are of the ordinary type; leather-covered 
top rolls are shown in this illustration, although for coarse 
work metallic rolls are generally preferred. The top rolls are 
weighted in the manner usually adopted for weighting leather- 




FiG. 2 



covered rolls on drawing frames. The weighting arrangement is 
eqtiipped with a weight-relieving motion, as shown at I, h. h, h- 
The draft inserted in the sliver by these rolls, though not 
arbitrary, is usually about equal to the number of doublings, 
thus producing a sliver at the front of about the same weight 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 153 

as each end fed in at the back. If one of the cans at the back 
should become empty or if one of the sHvers should break before 
reaching the back rolls and the machine should continue to run, 
the reduced weight of the sliver delivered at the front would 
tend to produce unsatisfactory work at the later processes. As 
it is of vital importance to have the sliver that comes from the 
drawing frame of a uniform weight, devices are applied to stop 
the machine when an end breaks or runs out at the back. Addi- 
tional mechanisms are also applied to stop the machine when the 
sliver breaks between the front rolls and calender rolls, when 
the cans at the front of the machine become full, and in some 
cases when any part of the cotton laps around the calender 
or the drawing rolls. There are two general classes of 
stop-motions applied to drawing frames — ^mechanical and 
electrical. 

Gearing. — Each head in a drawing frame is driven separately 
from any other head in regard to its individual gearing, but 
all the heads are driven by the lower or main shaft, which runs 
underneath the frame. 

Referring to Fig. 2, a gear of 24 teeth on the front roll drives, 
by means of suitable gearing, the calender rolls and the coiler 
connections. Another gear of 24 teeth, situated on the front 
roll, drives the back roll. The gear of 26 teeth on this back 
roll drives the third roll. Thus, the draft between these two 
rolls is constant, provided that the gears connecting the rolls 
are not changed. The gear of 20 teeth on the front roll drives 
the second roll, and consequently the draft between these 
two rolls is also constant. Thus, it will be seen that the 
break draft of this machine comes between the second and 
third rolls. 

The draft of a drawing frame with common rolls, and geared 

as shown in Fig. 2, is as follows, the draft being figured from the 

calender roll to the back roll: 

2X30X24X100X60 

= 5.509 

24X45X24X44X11 

Production. — The accompanying table shows the number 

of pounds of drawing sliver produced in a day of 10 hr., allowing 

20% for cleaning, oiling, etc. 



154 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 155 

MANAGEMENT OF DRAWING FRAMES 

If empty cans are inserted at the front of a drawing frame 
at the same time and if they are all taken out at once and fed 
immediately to the next machine at the same time, it is evident 
that they will all be emptied at about the same time, necessi- 
tating several piecings in a short length of sliver. To remedy 
this defect, it is better to feed the frames in sections so that 
some of the cans at the back of any drawing frame will be fuU, 
others three-fourths full, still others half full, and so on. ' 

It is the general plan in the drawing frame not to have the 
draft exceed the doubling; that is, if 6 ends are put up at the 
back of each delivery, the draft is not generally more than 6. 

Both top and bottom metallic rolls should receive careful 
attention to prevent licking. In this respect metallic rolls 
require cleaning oftener than common rolls. 

Before the leather top rolls are put into the drawing frame, 
they must be varnished, the frequency of subsequent varnishing 
depending on the varnish used, the weight of sliver produced, 
and the speed at which the rolls are run. Any roughness on 
the Surface of these rolls causes licking. 

The drawing frames should be kept free, from dirt, dust, and 
short fiber. Oil should not be allowed in places where it is 
not required. In order to insure clean work, the tender .should 
wipe or brush the frames about every two hours. 

A thorough cleaning of aU parts of the frame should take 
place twice a week. 

Weighing the sliver at the finisher drawing frame is a very 
important matter and should be done at least twice a day; in 
fine work three, and sometimes four, times a day is advisable. 



COMBING 

For warp yarns finer than 45s and filling yams finer than 
90s, or even for coarser numbers than these when a high grade 
of yam is required, it is customary, in addition to the selection 
of the proper stock, to remove by the process of combing all 
fibers that are not of the required length. 

The process of combing is usually performed immediately 
after carding and before the drawing process, although in some 



156 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

cases one drawing process is used between the carding and the 
combing process. 

A combing eqmpment usually includes three kinds of 
machines: (1) the sliver-lap machine, which has for its object 
the making of a lap from a number of card slivers; (2) the rib- 
bon-lap machine, the object of which is to combine several of 
the laps from the sliver-lap machine into a firm and even lap; 
(3) the comber, the object of which is to remove all fibers that 
are under a length suitable for the yam required. 

When the drawing frame is introduced, the combing equip- 
ment generally consists of drawing frames, sliver-lap machines, 
and combers. 

SLIVER-LAP MACHINE 

Before cotton can be combed, it must be placed in the form 
of a lap for the combing machine, and for this purpose the 
sliver is taken in cans, either from the card or drawing frame, 
to the sliver-lap machine. 

From 14 to 18 cans of sliver are placed at the back of this 
machine, the number being governed by the width of lap 
required, which is usually 7|, 8f , or 10| in. These slivers are 
run through the sliyer-lap machine and after being subjected 
to a slight drafting action emerge in the form of a compact lap. 
This machine is fitted with two stop-motions, one to stop the 
machine when an end of sliver breaks at the back and the other 
to stop the machine when the lap is full. 

Fig. 1 is the plan of gearing for a sliver-lap machine; the 

draft, figured from the front fluted calender roll to the back 

drawing roll, is as follows: 

12X21X12X72X21X26X24X64 
— — = 1.954 

21X72X29X21X50X41X33XU 

The amount of draft on these machines is usually from 1.75 
to 2.5. 

Production. — The accompanying table shows the produc- 
tion of the sliver-lap machine per day of 10 hr., allowing 25% 
for oiling, cleaning, etc. 

RIBBON-LAP MACHINE 

It is not absolutely necessary to use a ribbon-lap machine in 
the combing process, as the laps from the sliver-lap machine 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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157 



158 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 





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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 161 

may be taken directly to the comber. If, however, the lap 
from the sliver-lap machine is unrolled for about a yard and 
held to the light, it will be seen that the slivers merely lie side 
by side, and that the lap is uneven, showing both thick and 
thin places. Therefore, to have a more even lap, the ribbon- 
lap machine is used. The usual doubling on the ribbon-lap 
machine is 6 into 1, and the laps fed are generally 1 in. narrower 
than the laps to be made for the comber. 

The draft between the front and back drawing rolls usually 
about equals the doublings. 

Fig. 2 is the plan of gearing for a ribbon-lap machine; the 

draft, figured from the front fluted calender roll to the back 

drawing roll, with a 50-tooth draft gear, is as follows: 

12X30X21X14X20X68X100X70 

= 5.923 

30X50X21X40X72X25X50X11 ^ . 

Production. — The preceding table shows the production 

of the ribbon-lap machine per day of 10 hr., allowing 25% 

for oiling, cleaning, etc. 

COMBER 

The several actions of a comber must necessarily work 
intermittently and may be summarized as follows: (1) The 
feed-motion, by which the lap is fed to the machine; (2) the 
nipper motion, which holds the cotton during the combing 
operation; (3) the combing operation by the half lap; (4) the 
backward and forward motion of the delivery roll, or the 
piecing-up motion; (5) combing by the top comb; (6) the 
delivery of the stock to the calender rolls, draw-box, and coiler. 

Fig. 3 shows in section the principal working parts of the 
single-nip comber. In order to bring the cotton into a position 
to be combed, it is. first necessary that a certain length shall be 
delivered from the lap by the feed-rolls c, ci. After the cotton 
has been fed by these rolls, the nipper knife d descends and not 
only grips it firmly but also, by depressing the cushion plate h, 
brings the fringe of cotton into a suitable position to be acted on 
by the needles 07 of the half lap 02. The cylinder 01 is in such 
a position that, when the nipper knife d has completed its 
downward motion, the first row of needles on the half lap enters 
the end of the fringe of cotton, and, as the cylinder revolves, the 
successive rows of needles remove all the fibers that are too 



162 



COTTON-YARN PREPAR.ATION 



short to be retained by the nippers, as well as the neps that 
have been left in the cotton. After the needles on the half 
lap have passed the fringe of cotton, the ends of the fibers fall 
into the gap left between the needles and the fluted segment 03, 
and the nipper knife, together with the cushion plate, begins 
to rise. When the cushion plate has reached its uppermost 
position, the further lifting of the nipper knife releases the 
fibers at this point. During this operation the portion of the 




Fig. 3 



cotton previously combed has been brought back and is now 
ready to be pieced up with the cotton that has just undergone 
the combing operation by the half lap. 

The cylinder having revolved until the fluted segment is 
in the desired position, the detaching roll g descends and grips 
the cotton firmly between itself and the fluted segment. The 
further revolving of the fluted segment, together with the 
detaching roll, draws away the fibers that are not held by 
the grip of the feed-rolls, and since the top comb u has by this 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 163 

time dropped into such a position that it protrudes into the 
end of the lap just in advance of the portion that has not been 
cleaned by the needles of the half lap, it efficiently combs this 
portion of the fibers. At the beginning of this operation the 
forward ends of the fibers being combed are carried forwards 
sufficiently to overlap the rear ends of the fibers that were 
returned; consequently, the forward rotation of the delivery 
roll s, which occurs while the detaching roU is in contact with 
the segment, assists in piecing up the fibers just detached to 
those previously combed, and delivers them into the pan. 

It should be clearly understood that all the fibers do not 
project from the feed-rolls to the same extent at one time. 
For example, some of the fibers may not be gripped by the 
feed-rolls at all, while others may project beyond the feed-rolls 
a quarter of their length, some half of their length, and some 
three-quarters of their length; consequently, when the detach- 
ing action takes place, only those fibers that project entirely 
beyond the feed-rolls are gripped and drawn forwards by the 
action of the detaching roll and fluted segment, and those that 
project only partly beyond and are still gripped by the feed-rolls 
form a fringe of cotton that is always present in front of the 
feed-rolls. At the next delivery of the feed-rolls those fibers 
that previously projected only partly beyond the rolls may now 
project entirely beyond the rolls, and consequently at the next 
detaching operation these fibers will be drawn forwards in a 
manner similar to those previously detached. 

From the delivery roll, the cotton passes into a pan, through 
a trumpet, between the table calender rolls, and is delivered 
on to a table, along which it is drawn together with the other 
slivers that have been delivered by the various heads of the 
comber. Prom the table the slivers pass to a draw-box, where 
a slight draft is given to them, after which they pass through a 
trumpet and between a pair of calender rolls, where they are 
condensed into one sliver. From the calender roUs the sliver 
passes to a coiler and then into a can. 

Double-Nip Comber. — The cylinder of a double-nip comber 
contains two half laps and two fluted segments, and the seg- 
ments and half laps are arranged alternately on the cylinder 
with slight spaces between them. A comber with a double nip 



164 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 




COT'^ON- VARN PREP A RA TION 



165 



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166 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



gives a greater production than a comber with a single nip, but 
does not clean the cotton so well, because of a smaller number 
of needles acting on the fringe. 

Calculations. — The gearing of a single-nip comber is shown 
in Fig. 4. The draft for the gearing shown, with an 18-tooth 
draft change gear, figuring from the 2-in. coiler calender roU to 
the 2f-in. lap roU at the back of the comber, is as follows: 

2X16X16X60X5X38X22X55X47 ^„ ^„^ 

= 23.579 

16X16X69X1X18X23X20X35X21 

As the comber removes a very large percentage of waste 
from the cotton that passes through it, it is not possible to 
figure accurately the weight of the sliver produced by simply 



<e^*\ 



(a) 



K 





::X2 



> 



(f) 



Fig. 5 



taking into consideration the weight per yard of the lap fed 
in, the number of doublings, and the draft of the machine. 
An example will make this point clearer. 

Example. — Suppose that a comber with a draft of 23.579 
has six laps up at the back, each lap weighing 260 gr. per yard, 
and it is desired to find the weight per yard of the sliver 
delivered. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



167 



Solution. — Multiplying the weight per yard of the laps fed 
in by the ntmiber of laps, and dividing by the draft gives 66.1605 
gr. as the weight per yard of the sliver delivered; (260X6) 
-7- 23.579 = 66. 1605. If 20%of the cotton that passes through the 
machine is taken out as waste, the result obtained above must 
be diminished by 20% in order to obtain the actual"weight per 

COMBER SETTINGS 



Parts to be Set 


Gauge 


Size of Gauge 


Delivery roll from segment . 

Front flute of segment from 

delivery roll 


Comber 

Finger 
Finger 

With paper 

Step 
Finger 

Comber 
Brush 

Quadrant 

Comber 

Comber 
Comber 


No. 23 
liin. 


Feed-roll from delivery roll 

Cushion plate to nipper 

knife 


According to staple 


Distance of setscrew that 
governs position of cush- 
ion plate 


i to f in. 


Cushion plate from de- 
livery roll 


According to staple 


Distance of nipper from 
half lap when nipper is 
in its lowest position .... 

Brush to half lap 


No. 20 


Top comb set at angle of 
from 25° to 30° 




Top comb from fluted seg- 
ment 


No. 20 or 21 


Distance of lifter blocks 
from bearings of detach- 
ing roll when resting on 
segment 


No. 23 


Top roll from leather de- 
taching roll 


No- 21 







yard of the sliver delivered; 20% of 66.1605 is 13.2321, which, 
deducted from 66.1605, gives 52.9284 as the grains per yard of 
the sliver produced. 

Production. — The accompanying table shows the ntmiber 
of pounds of combed sliver produced per day of 10 hr., by the 
single-nip comber, allowing 5% for oiling, cleaning, etc. 

Setting of Combers. — The several kinds of gauges used in 
setting a comber are shown in Fig. 5, and include the regular 



168 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



comber gauge (a), the step gauge (6), the finger gauge (c), the 
quadrant gauge (d) , the cradle gauge (e) , and the brush gauge (/) . 

Assuming that a comber has merely been set up and that 
the cylinders are loose on the cylinder shaft, the parts that 
require setting with gauges and the gauges used for making 
each setting are as given in the accompanying table. 

The setting of the feed-roll from the delivery roll varies 
according to the staple and nature of the stock, as follows: 

COMBER FEED-ROLL SETTING 



Cotton 


Length of Staple 
Inches 


Size of Gauge 
Inches 


American 


About li 
Up to li 

1| and longer 


lii to m 


Egyptian 


Hi to IM 


Egyptian and sea-island . . . 


in to 2 



The setting of the cushion plate from the deHvery roll must 
be adjusted according to the length of staple, as shown in the 
following table: 

COMBER CUSHION PLATE SETTINGS 



Cotton 


Length of Staple 
Inches 


Size of Gauge 
Inches 


American 


11 to 11 
Over 1| 


1| to 1^ 


Egyptian. ............... 


1^ to 1| 


Sea-island 


li to li^ 







Timing of Combers. — ^The cylinder is taken as a basis for the 
timing of a comber, as all the intermittent movements are com- 
pleted within the time occupied by one revolution of the cylin- 
der. A gear of 80 teeth, on the cylinder shaft, is divided into 
twenty equal parts, or sections, which are numbered on the rim 
of the gear from 1 to 20, each section containing 4 teeth. This 
gear is known as the index gear. A vertical index finger indi- 
cates, by its relation to the position of the index gear, the posi- 
tion of the cylinder. 



COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 169 

The numbers are so placed that as the cylinder re- 
volves. No. 1 is first brought opposite the index finger, 
then No. 2, No. 3, and so on up to 20. Each section of 
the index gear is spoken of as a whole number, and 
each tooth in a section is spoken of as i; that is, if the 
cylinder has revolved until the comber is said to be at 
51, it indicates that the index finger is at the second 
tooth beyond the section marked 5 on the index gear, or 
22 teeth from the starting position. 

The actions to be timed are: (1) The motion of the 
feed- rolls; (2) the motion of the nippers; (3) the placing 
of the detaching roll and top roll in position for detach- 
ing; (4) removal of detaching roll from detaching posi- 
tion; (5) motions of the delivery roll; (6) movement of 
the top comb. 

The timings vary somewhat according to the nature of 
the cotton, its length of staple, the amount of waste 
removed, etc., but are usually adjusted as shown in the 
accompanying table: 

COMBER TIMINGS 



Timings 



Feed at 

Nipper knife to leave cushion plate at 

Nipper knife to touch cushion plate at 

Leather detaching roll to touch segment at. 
Leather detaching roll to leave segment at. 

Delivery roll to reverse at 

Delivery roll to deliver at 

Top comb down at 



Index Gear 



4jto6 
About 4i 
About 9 
About 61 
About 9J 
About li 
About 6 
5 to 6 



SETTING AND TIMING THE WHITIN HIGH-SPEED 
(MODEL D2) COMBER 

The Whitin high-speed comber operates on the Heil- 
mann single-nip principle but embodies improvements 
in the construction of its actuating mechanisms that 
enable closer adjustments to be made, increased speed 



170 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

and production to be obtained, and better work to be 
produced. The following settings and timings apply to 
this machine, but are not arbitrary and may require some 
alteration to produce the best results with certain grades 
of cotton: 

Timing Cams. — The actuating cams may be timed by 
loosening the 80-tooth gear and throwing it out of mesh. 
The cam-shaft is then turned until the roller on the 
pawl arm is in contact with the heel of the large cam 
on the end of the machine. Next the index gear is 
turned until No. 5 is opposite the pointer and then the 
80-tooth gear is meshed and secured. 

Setting Steel Detaching Roll.— The steel detaching roll 
should be free and should be set to the fluted segment 
with a No. 21 gauge. 

Setting and Timing Cylinders. — The index gear should 
be revolved until No. 5 is opposite the indicator and each 
cylinder should then be adjusted on the shaft so that 
the front edge of its segment is Ig inches from the rear 
side of the detaching roll. A li-inch gauge is used to 
make this adjustment. 

Setting and Timing Leather Detaching Roll.— The 

leather detaching rolls should be set so that a No. 25 
gauge may be inserted between the flat side of the 
bushings on the ends of the rolls and the adjusting 
slides. The index gears should be at No. 8 when this 
adjustment is made. The cam on the end of the comber 
should be adjusted on its sleeve so that the detaching 
roll will commence to move forward when No. 6 on the 
index gear is opposite the pointer. The comber should 
now be turned over and the inside actuating cam ad- 
justed so that the detaching roll will move forward at 
No. 6. 

Setting and Timing Feed-Roll.— The feed-roll should 
start to revolve when No. 7^ on the index gear is opposite 
the indicator. The feed-roll should be set li inches 
from the detaching roll for short stock and Ig inches for 
long stock. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 171 

Setting and Timing the Nippers.— The nipper plates 
should be set so that their front edges are gauged with a 
No. 22 gauge from the nipper knife lip. The nipper knife 
should hold a slip of paper on the full length of the 
plate. The nipper knife may be set with an angle of 
about 34 degrees by means of the stop-screws. For short 
stock the front edge of the plate should be set 11 inches 
from the detaching roll and for long stock a setting of 
1^^ inches should be made. The nipper frames should 
now be leveled with the segment by setting with a No. 19 
gauge. Next the nipper frames should be connected with 
the nipper shaft and the comber shaft turned until the 
index gear is at No. 14i and the first row of needles of 
the half lap point directly to the center of the detaching 
roll. With the roll in the high part of the nipper cam 
under the sliver plate the connecting-rods may now be 
adjusted with a No. 25 gauge under the stop-screws. 
Also, the nipper frames may now be reset by inserting 
a No. 21 gauge between them and the needles. The 
nipper cams should be timed so that the nipper knives 
touch the plates when No. 11 on the index gear is oppo- 
site the pointer. 

Setting Top Combs.— The top comb shaft is set 63 
inches from the back side of the detaching roll, measur- 
ing to the front side of the top comb shaft. The comber 
may be turned until the index gear registers No. 8 and 
the segment is under the needles of the top comb. The 
top comb may be given an angle of about 24 degrees and 
set 3^2 iiich from the leather roll for short stock. For 
long stock, the combs may be given an increased angle. 
The combs should be adjusted to the segment with a 
No. 22 or No. 23 gauge. 

CARE OF COMBERS 

The proper oiling of combers is very important, since 
if oil is too freely employed on these machines they 
become very dirty and run poorly. On the other hand, 
the use of oil in too small quantities causes excessive 



172 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

wear that soon cripples the machines. Combers should be 
oiled twice a week, at uniform intervals, and the oiling 
should be done under the direct and constant supervision 
of a responsible person. Fast running parts should be 
oiled every morning. All oil that runs out of oil holes 
and over parts of the comber should be wiped off care- 
fully. Twice each day, at stated times, comber tenders 
should clean around the rolls of the machine with a 
finger brush, and clean the backs and fronts and wipe 
the lint from the machines. Four times a day, at fixed 
periods, the top combs should be cleaned and the floor 
swept around the machines. 

Twice each week the draw boxes should be thoroughly 
cleaned and top rolls replaced with newly-varnished 
rolls. Also, the gearing and cams should be cleaned 
twice in each week. Every morning the sliver plates, 
coiler tops, and draw-box covers should be polished with 
whiting. Laps must never be allowed to run out or the 
needles of the half laps and top combs will be broken, 
while if the laps are inserted at the proper time, the 
needles will remain in good condition. 

Comber tenders should be instructed to report at once 
if a machine is out of order and runs poorly. They are 
responsible for two sets of combers arranged in pairs 
and should not leave their machines, even temporarily, 
without arranging for another tender to care for them 
during the absent period. The person in direct charge 
of the combers, generally a third hand, should supervise 
the tenders, seeing that they oil and clean the machines 
isarefully and in accordance with the prescribed schedule. 
Combers must not be cleaned when in operation, as 
this is liable to result in very serious accidents and also 
causes many breakages. Once each week, the third 
hand should inspect all half laps and top combs, replac- 
ing any that may be found in poor condition. Leather 
detaching rolls should be varnished and changed once 
each week. Stop-motions should be kept in working con- 
dition at all times, and third hands should always respond 
quickly to complaints in regard to poor running ma- 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 173 

chines, uneven work, etc. Every Saturday, or at such 
other times as the machines are to be stopped for a 
considerable period of time, the pressure should be taken 
off the rolls with the weight-relieving device. Roller 
laps should never be cut from steel rolls with a knife; 
instead, a brass hook should be used for removing these 
accumulations. Steps should be taken to insure the 
production of good laps for feeding combers, for poor 
laps cause serious trouble in the combing operation, 
damaging the machines and reducing production. The 
laps should be sized every day under ordinary conditions, 
but on fine counts they should be sized twice a day in 
order that they may be kept of uniform weight. The 
percentage of waste made should be watched and at 
least once a month the percentage of waste of all the 
combers should be ascertained. 

Combers, sliver-lap machines, and ribbon-lap machines 
should be given a thorough scouring and overhauling 
once each year. All rolls, aprons, pans, etc., should be 
taken off and carefully cleaned. Hoods and casings 
should be removed and the gearing given a general 
cleaning. The comber should be reset and any worn 
parts replaced or repaired. 

Waste. — It may be stated that more waste may be re- 
moved by feeding at a late period, by nipping later, by 
closer settings of the nippers and top combs to the 
cylinders, and by increasing the angle of the top comb. 
The amount of waste removed when combing different 
kinds of cotton should be ascertained often enough to 
insure that the proper percentage of waste is being taken 
out. 

The comber is operated until the doffer comb is at the 
lowest part of its swing, after which the waste at the 
back is all removed and the sliver broken at the point 
where it is leaving the front calender rolls. The comber 
is next started and allowed to run until it has made 
about 40 nips. The cotton delivered by the front calender 
rolls is then kept as one portion, while the waste deliv- 



174 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



ered is taken as another portion. These two portions of 
cotton are placed on a pair of scales, Fig. 6, which, 
instead of denoting weight, denotes the percentage of 
waste. 

If the comber is taking out too much or too little 
waste, any of the settings and timings regulating the 
amount of waste may be changed. The amount of waste 




Fig. 6 



will vary under the very best circumstances from 1 to 
3%, and due allowance should be made for this. 

Another method for finding the percentage of waste is 
to weigh each portion and add the weight of waste to the 
weight of combed cotton and divide this result into the 
weight of the waste. 

Example. — If 60 gr. of sliver is delivered from a cer- 
tain comber in a given number of nips and the waste 
amounts to 15 gr., what percentage of waste is being 
removed? 

Solution.— 60 gr. weight of sliver 

. 15 gr. weight of waste 

75 gr. total weight 
15-r75=.20, or 20% 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 175 

FLY FRAMES 

Fly frames have as their objects: (a) the reduction of the 
thickness of the sliver, (6) the evening of the product, (c) the 
twisting of the roving, (d) the winding of the roving on a bobbin. 

Fly frames include slubbers, intermediates, and roving frames 
where three frames are used between the drawing and spinning 
frames. "Where four frames are used they are generally known 
as the slubber, intermediate, roving frame, and jack frame; 
in this case the word jack is used to indicate a fine roving 
frame sometimes called a jack roving frame. The frame fol- 
lowing the intermediates is sometimes called a fine frame. A 
much better method of naming the machines is to speak of 
the first machine after the drawing as the slubber; the last 
machine before the spinning as the roving frame; and the inter- 
mediates, if more than one, are spoken of as the first and sec- 
ond intermediates, respectively. 

All fly frames are practically of the same type. One point 
to be noted, however, is that since the roving is gradually 
drawn finer at each succeeding process, certain parts of the 
intermediate frame should be smaller than similar parts of 
the slubber; the same is also true in regard to the roving frame 
as compared with the intermediate. With the slubber, the 
cans from the drawing frames are placed directly behind the 
machine and the sliver fed from the cans; and with the fly 
frames that follow the slubber, creels are provided in which to 
place the bobbins of roving, which is the form in which the 
cotton is delivered by all of these machines. 

Slubber. — ^A section of the essential parts of a slubber is 
shown in Fig. 1. The cans from the finisher drawing frame are 
placed behind the slubber and the sliver 6 passed to the guide 
board c. In the slubber, which in this respect is unlike any 
of the other fly frames, no doubling takes place, each end of 
sliver being treated individually. From the guide board c the 
sliver passes over the lifter roll d, through the traverse guide e, 
and then through three sets of rolls fs, f2, fi, which insert the 
necessary draft. From the drawing rolls, the sliver passes- 
through the upper part of the flyer g and then out at its lower 
part, where it is wound around an arm supported by the flyer„ 



176 



CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION 




COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 177 

From this arm, the cotton, which, having been reduced in 
size by the drawing rolls of the slubber, is now known as 
roving, passes to the bobbin h, on which it is compactly wound. 
In the illustration two ends are shown at the front, although 
for convenience only one sliver is shown at the back. Each 
end shown at the front is produced from a separate sliver fed 
behind the frame. 

It is necessary to insert a small amount of twist in the roving 
after it leaves the front drawing rolls, to enable the fibers to 
hold together and withstand the strain of being wound on 
the bobbin and unwound at the next process. In fly frames, 
the roving is gripped between the front rolls as it is being 
delivered, and is also held by the bobbin on which it is being 
wound, although as the roving passes through the hole in the 
boss of the flyer and down the hollow leg, the top of the 
boss of the flyer practically forms the termination of the grip 
of the roving at this point. Consequently, the roving may be 
considered as being firmly held here, and since the spindle 
and flyer are making from 600 to 1,400 rev. per min., the roving 
is being twisted all the time. In ascertaining the amount of 
twist per inch inserted in the roving, the number of inches of 
roving delivered by the rolls during a certain period, and the 
number of turns made by the spindle during the same period, 
must be obtained. If, for example, the flyer makes 25 revolu- 
tions while the rolls deliver 12| in. of roving, there will be 
25-4-121 = 2 ttims of twist put into an inch of the roving. 

The front rolls of a fly frame rotate at a constant speed; 
hence, a uniform length of roving is being constantly delivered. 
Suitable means must be provided for winding this roving on 
to the bobbin as fast as it is delivered, and the mechanism for 
winding must be such that the roving will not be broken or 
strained. The roving is wrapped around the bobbin because 
of the difference in the velocity of the bobbin and the flyer eye, 
since if both revolved in the same direction and at the same 
speed the- roving could not be drawn through the eye of the 
flyer and wound around the bobbin. In considering the 
action of the flyer and bobbin in winding the roving about the 
latter, it will be found that there are two methods by which 
this is accomplished. 



178 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



\ 



1. A rotary motion is given to both the flyer and the bobbin, 
the speed of the flyer being just sufficiently in excess of that 
of the bobbin to wind the roving on to the latter as fast as it is 
delivered by the drawing rolls of the frame. Since in this 
case the flyer is moving faster than the bobbin, or leading it, 
the arrangement is known as a flyer lead, and a frame thus 
equipped is called a flyer-lead frame. 

2. Another method of winding the roving on to the bobbin 
is that in which the bobbin rotates at a speed just sufficiently 
in excess of that of the flyer to cause it to wind on the roving 
as fast as it is delivered by the drawing rolls. This is the 
arrangement that is almost always adopted on modem fly 
frames, and since in this case the bobbin rotates faster, or 
leads the flyer, it is known as the bobbin-lead method, fly 
frames thus equipped being known as bobbin-lead frames. 

In both flyer-lead and bobbin-lead fly frames, the speed of 
the delivery of the roving and the speed of the flyers are con- 
stant. This is necessary, because if the speed of the drawing 
rolls were made variable the production of the frame would 
be altered, and also because, in order to produce an even roving, 
the sliver should be drawn at a regular and uniform speed. 
A variable speed of the flyers is impracticable, because this 
would produce a variation in the amount of twist in the roving. 
In order, therefore, to compensate for the constantly increasing 
diameter of the bobbin, a variation must be made in its speed, 
so that the tension on the roving during the winding will be 
the same whether the bobbin is empty or full. The speed of 
the bobbin is regulated and controlled by two mechanisms that 
act in combination. One is known as the differential motion, 
more commonly called the compound; the other consists of two 
cones and connections. 

Calculations. — The following examples of necessary fly- 
frame calculations apply to the gearing shown in Fig. 2 and 
to a bobbin-lead type of frame. 

Example 1. — Find the speed of the jack-shaft when the main 

shaft makes 300 rev. per min. and carries a 20-in. pulley driving 

a 16-in. pulley on the jack-shaft. 

300X20 
Solution. — -. — = 375 rev. per min. of jack-shaft 



COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



179 










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180 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Example 2. — Find the revolutions per minute of the top- 
cone shaft when the jack-shaft makes 375 rev. per min. and 
carries a 38-tooth twist gear driving a 48-tooth gear on the 
top-cone shaft- 

Solution. — 

375X38 

= 296.875 rev. per min. of top-cone shaft 

48 

Example 3. — ^Find the revolutions per minute of the front 
roll when the top-cone shaft makes 296.875 rev. per min. and 
carries an 86-tooth gear driving a 120-tooth gear on the front- 
roll shaft. 

296.875X86 

Solution. — = 212.76 rev. per min. 

120 

Example 4. — Find the length of roving delivered per minute 
by the front roll when it is 1.25 in. in diameter and makes 212.76 
rev. per min. 

Solution. — 

212.76X1.25X3.1416 

=23.208 yd. per min. 

36 

Example 5. — Find the number of revolutions of the spindles 
to 1 revolution of the jack-shaft when the jack-shaft carries a 
42-tooth gear driving a 42-tooth gear on the spindle-gear shaft, 
which carries a 46-tooth gear driving a 24-tooth gear on the 
lower end of the spindle. 

Solution. — 

1X42X46 

= 1.916 rev. of spindles to 1 rev. of jack-shaft 

42X24 

Example 6. — Find the revolutions per minute of the spindles 
when the jack-shaft makes 375 rev. per min. and the spindles 
make 1.916 turns to one of the jack-shaft. 

Solution. — 

375X1.916 = 718.5 rev. per min. of spindles 

The twist, or turns, per inch in the roving may be found by 
the following rules: 

Rule I. — Divide the revolutions per minute of the spindles by 
the length of roving, in inches, delivered by the front roll in the 
same time. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 181 

Example. — Find the turns per inch being placed in the 
roving if the spindles make 718.5 rev. per min. and the front roll 
delivers 23.208 yd. per min. 

Solution.— 23.208X36 = 835.488 in. per min.; 718.5 
-i- 835.488 = .859 turn per in. 

Rule n. — Taking into consideration all the gears, with the 
exception of the carrier gears, from the front roll to the spindles, 
assume that the front-roll gear is a driver. Multiply together 
all driving gears and divide by the product of all the driven gear. 
Divide the quotient thus obtained by the circumference of the front 
roll. ) 

Example. — Find the turns per inch being inserted in the 
roving with the following arrangement of gears: the front roll 
is 1.25 in. in diameter; front-roll gear has 120 teeth; gear on end 
of top- cone shaft, 86 teeth; top-cone gear, 48 teeth; twist gear, 
38 teeth; jack-shaft gear, 42 teeth; spindle-shaft gear, 42 teeth; 
gear on spindle-shaft that drives spindle, 46 teeth; gear on 
spindle, 24 teeth. 

Solution. — 

120X48X42X46 3.378 

= 3.378; = .86 turns per in. 

86X38X42X24 1.25X3.1416 

The constant for twist may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Apply Rule II, for finding the twist, considering the 
twist gear as a 1 -tooth gear. 

Example. — Find the constant for twist, using the train ot 
gearing given in the preceding example for finding the twist. 

Solution. — 

120X48X42X46 

— =128.372; 

86X1X42X24 

128.372 



■ = 32.689, constant dividend for twist 
1.25X3.1416 

The constant dividend divided by the twist gear equals the 
twist per inch; thus, 32.689 ^38 = .86, twist per in. 

The speed of the bobbins may be found by the following rule: 

Rule. — Find the amount of roving wound on the bobbins per 

minute and divide by the circumference of the bobbin. Add the 

result thus obtained to the speed of the spindles per minute, and 

the answer is the speed of the bobbins per minute. 



182 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Example 1. — Find the speed of the bobbins at the beginnixig 

of a set when the diameter of the bobbin is 1.75 in.; the speed 

of the spindles, 718.5 rev. per min. ; and the front roll delivers 

835.488 in. per min. 

835.488 

Solution. — = 151.967 rev. per min. of bob- 

1.75X3.1416 

bins over speed of spindles. Speed of the spindles, 71S.5 rev. 

per min.; speed of bobbins over that of the spindles, 151.967. 

718.5-1-151.967 = 870.467, speed of bobbins at beginning of set. 

Example 2. — Find the speed of the bobbins at the finish of a 

set when the diameter of the full bobbin is 6. 125 in. ; the speed 

of the spindles, 718.5 rev. per min.; and the front roll delivers 

835.488 in. per minute. 

835.488 

Solution. — = 43.419 rev. per min. of the 

6.125X3.1416 

bobbins over the spindles. The number of revolutions per 

minute of the spindles is 718.5; the speed of the bobbins over 

that of the spindles is 43.419. 718.5+43.419 = 761.919 rev. per 

min. of bobbins at the finish of a set. 

The reduction of the speed per minute of the bobbins from 
an empty bobbin to a full bobbin in the above case is 870.467 
— 761.919 = 108.548 revolutions. 

The draft of a fly frame is calculated in the usual manner. 

Example 1. — Find the total draft of the rolls shown in Fig. 

2, using a 44-tooth draft gear. 

1.25X100X56 

Solution. — =3.977, total draft 

40X44X1 

The constant for draft is found in the same manner as the 
total draft, except that the draft gear is considered as a 1-tooth 
gear. 

Example 2. — Find the draft constant for the rolls shown in 

Fig. 2. 

1.25X100X56 

Solution. — = 175, constant 

40X1X1 

Example 3. — ^Pind the draft between the second and third 

rolls. 

1X25 

Solution.— = 1.086, draft 

23X1 



COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 183 

Example 4. — Find the draft between the front ^nd second 

rolls if the draft gear contains 44 teeth. 

1.25X100X56X23 

Solution. = 3.659, draft 

40X44X25X1 

Change Gears. — In changing from one hank roving to 
another some or all of the following gears must be altered (the 
reference letters apply to Fig. 2) : (1) the twist gear mz, which 
alters the speed of the rolls and regulates the turns of twist- 
placed in the roving?; (2) the tension gear y^, which regulates, 
the movement of the belt along the cones; (3) the draft gear i, 
which alters the hank of the roving delivered ; (4) the taper gear 
x^, which alters the taper of the bobbin; (5) the lay, or traverse, 
gear v^. Which alters the speed of the traverse of the carriage. 

The most important change to make is in the draft change 
gear, which regulates the size of the roving. It is generally 
customary at the same time to change the twist gear, because 
this should vary with every change in the hank of the roving. 
The tension gear is also frequently changed. It is not custom- 
ary, however, to change the lay gear unless the change in the 
hank of the roving is extensive. If the slubber roving is 
changed .3 hank, the first intermediate roving .5 hank, the 
second intermediate roving .75 hank, or the finished roving 
a whole hank, the lay gear will ordinarily be changed. 

It is seldom that the taper gear is changed in the mill , since 
the gear that is placed on the frame by the builders usually 
serves for the range of roving that the frame is intended for. 

The following rules apply to the method of figuring the 
different change gears when the gears that are on the frame 
and the hank roving being produced are known. From the 
calculations previously given it is possible to obtain the draft 
and twist gears without this data, but for the tension and lay 
gears this data is always necessary, since the correct gear for 
starting up a frame was obtained by the builders largely by 
experiment and not by calculation. Even when the gear to 
use for a certain hank roving is known, the calculated gear for 
another hank does not always give satisfactory results, since 
the changing of these gears is largely a matter of experience and 
observation, owing to a number of different items affecting the 
results produced by them. 



184 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

To find the draft gear to be used for a certain hank roving 
when the draft gear that is on and the hank roving that it pro- 
duces are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the hank roving that 
it produces, and divide the result by the hank roving that is to be made. 

Example. — If 4-hank roving is being produced with a 32- 
tooth draft gear, what draft gear will a 6-hank roving require? 

Solution. — 32 X 4 = 128; 128 -^ 6 = 21.333, or practically a 
21-tooth draft gear 

To find the twist gear to be used for a certain hank roving 
when the twist gear that is on and the hank roving that is pro- 
duced are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by 
the twist gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required. 

In examples in which the diameter of the roving affects the 
size of the gear to be used it is necessary to consider the square 
roots of the hanks, since the diameters of rovings vary inversely 
as the square roots of their hanks. 

Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 54-tooth 
gear, what twist gear is required for a .64-hank? 

Solution.— V:36 = .6; -N/T64 = .8; .6X54 = 32.4; 32.4-^.8 
= 40.5. Either a 41-tooth or a 40-tooth gear may be used. 

To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving 
when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is 
produced are known, the frame having the American type of 
builder: 

Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by the 
tension gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required. 

Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 50-tooth 
tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank? 

Solution.— Af:36 = .6; -N/:6i = .8; .6X50 = 30; 30-^.8 
= 37.5. Either a 37-tooth or a 38-tooth gear may be used. 

To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving 
when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is pro- 
duced are known, the frame having the English type of builder: 

Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank required by the 
tension gear, and divide by the square root of the hank being made. 

Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 20-tooth 
tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank? 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 185 

Solution.— Vise = .6; Vj64 = .8; .8X20=16; 16-^.66 
= 26.666. A 27-tooth gear would be used. 

To find the lay gear to be used for a certain hank roving when 
the lay gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are 
known: 

Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by 
the lay gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required. 

Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 33-tooth 
gear, what lay gear is required for a .64-hank? 

Solution. — Vi36 = .6; Vi64 = .8; .6X33 = 19.8; 19.8-^.8 
= 24.75. A 25-tooth gear should be used. 

Production. — To find the production of a fly frame, in pounds: 

Rule. — Multiply the hanks per spindle, as indicated by the 
hank clock, by the number of spindles, and divide by the hank 
roving. 

Example. — A clock on a 72-spindle frame registers 75 hanks 

of .5-hank roving turned off in a week. What is the production 

in pounds? 

75X72 

Solution.— = 10,800 lb. 

.5 

Average Hank. — To find the average hank, or average num- 
ber, of the roving when several hanks are being run: 

Rule. — Multiply the pounds of each hank produced by the 
number of the hank, and divide the sum of the products thus 
obtained by the sum of the pounds produced. 

Example.— If 1,800 lb. of .50-hank, 700 lb, of 1.50-hank, 
850 lb. of 2-hank, 800 lb. of 2.25-hank, 750 lb. of 4-hank, and 
700 lb. of 10-hank are produced in a week, what is the average 
hank of the roving? 

Solution. — 



Total 



1,8 00 X .5 = 


900 


700 X 1.5 = 


1,0 5 


8 5 X 2.0 = 


1,7 


8 00 X 2.2 5 = 


1,8 


7 5 X 4.0 = 


3,0 


7 X 1 0.0 = 


7,0 


5,6 lb. 


1 5,4 5 hanks 



15,4504-5,600 = 2.758, average hank 



186 



COT TON -YARN PREPARATION 



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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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188 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Twist. — It has been found practical with fly frames to insert 
a number of turns per inch of twist that is equal to the products 
of the square root of the hank and certain numbers used as 
constants. The accompanying table gives the constants that 
are commonly used for American, Egyptian, and sea-island 
cotton on the slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, 
and roving frames. 



TWIST CONSTANTS 


FOR FLY FRAMES 


Cotton 


Slubber 


First 
Inter- 
mediate 


Second 
Inter- 
mediate 


Roving 
Frame 


American 


1.0 
.9 

.7 


1.1 
1.0 

.8 


1.20 

1.10 

.90 to .95 


1.3 


Egyptian 


1.2 


Sea-island 


1.0 







Speed. — The speed of the spindles on a slubbing frame may 
slightly exceed 600 rev. per min. ; on a first intermediate frame 
900 rev. per min. is a good speed; on a second intermediate, 
1,200; and on a roving frame, 1,500 rev. per min. These 
speeds, of course, are often exceeded in many mills. In some 
cases it would be more accurate to give the speeds at 800, 1,000, 
1,300, and 1,600 rev., respectively, for the four machines. 

Sizing. — It is customary to test the hank of the roving, or in 
other words to size roving, by reeling off a standard length 
from bobbins. The length usually taken in case of slubber 
and first intermediate roving is 12 yd.; for second intermediate 
or fine roving, 24 yd. 

In some cases the sliver is sized at the drawing frame, and in 
other cases the slubber is taken as the starting point. In the 
latter case, the roving delivered is weighed two or sometimes 
three times a day, two bobbins being taken from a doff. Twelve 
yards are reeled off each bobbin and weighed and the average 
taken. If the average varies considerably either way from the 
correct weight of that number of yards of the hank being made, 
the draft gear is changed. The bobbins from frames finer than 
the slubber are weighed generally once a day, two or even more 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



189 



bobbins being taken from each frame. Where there is a dif- 
ference from the standard of 2^ gr. in hanks from 1.5 to 4, or a 
difference of 2 gr. in hanks from 4 to 12, a change is made» 

There ate various systems of keeping numbers and various 
limits set for the number of grains that roving should be 
allowed to vary from either side of the standard before changing 
the draft gear. The one explained may be taken as a basis. 



STANDARD 


SIZES OF FLY FRAMES 






Space 




Frame 


Size 


Between 


Number of 






Spindles 


Spindles 




Inches 


Inches 




Slubber 


12X6 
12X6 
11X51 
10X5 
9X4| 
10X5 


10 

9 
9 

7i 
8 


24 to 68 


Slubber 


24 to 68 


Slubber 


28 to 72 


Slubber 


32 to 76 


Slubber 


30 to 96 


First intermediate 


40 to 104 


First intermediate 


10X5 


7i 


42 to 108 


First intermediate 


9X4§ 


7 


48 to 114 


First intermediate 


9X4| 


61 


48 to 114 


First intermediate 


8X4 


6 


48 to 136 


First intermediate 


8X4 


51 


48 to 136 


First intermediate 


8X4 


51 


66 to 132 


Second intermediate 


8X31 


5i 


56 to 144 


Second intermediate 


7X31 


5i 


64 to 152 


Second intermediate 


7X3§ 


5 


64 to 152 


Second intermediate. . . . 


7X3 


4f 
4j 


72 to 160 


Second intermediate 


7X3 


72 to 160 


Second intermediate 


6X3 


4i 


80 to 168 


Roving 


6X2i 


41 


88 to 176 


Roving 


5X2| 


4i 


96 to 184 


Roving 


4iX2i 


4 


112 to 200 







Dimensions of Fly Frames. — Fly frames are spoken of not 
only according to the name of each kind of frame, but also by 
the number of spindles, the length of the bobbin that the first 
layer of roving covers (known as the traverse of the bobbin) , and 
the diameter of the full bobbin. Thus, a frame spoken of as a 
96-spindle 9 in.X4| in. indicates that the frame has two rows 
of spindles, 48 in each row; that the greatest possible traverse 



190 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



on the bobbin is 9 in. in length; and that when the bobbinMs 
full it cannot exceed 4| in. in diameter. ) 

The table gives the standard sizes of frames of one builder. 



RING SPINNING 

Cotton yam usually is spun on two kinds of spinning 
machines; namely, the ring frame and the self-acting mule. 
The objects of spinning machinery are: (1) Completing the 




attenuation of the roving so as to form a thread, or yam; (2) 
twisting the yam that is formed so as to give it the required 
strength; (3) winding or building the yam in suitable form for 
use at the next process. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 191 

In Fig. 1 , a section of the essential parts of a ring frame are 
shown. The bobbins of roving from the last fly -frame process 
are placed in a creel and the ends of roving from the bobbins in 
the lower set are passed over the guide rod b and through trum- 
. pets on the traverse guide rod c, while the roving from the 
upper set of bobbins passes over another guide rod not shown 
in the illustration and then to the traverse rod. In passing the 
roving to the traverse rod, when spinning from double roving, 
an end from a bobbin in the top row is taken together with an 
end from a bobbin of the bottom row and passed through a 
trumpet. They then pass through the drawing rolls, where 
a certain amount of draft is inserted, and emerging at the front 
are twisted into one strand, or thread. The thread, or yarn, as 
it is now called, passes through the guide wire e, through the 
traveler /, which is mounted on the ring g, and is finally wound 
on the bobbin. In some cases only a single end of roving is 
passed through a trumpet and thence to the bobbin. This is 
known as spinning from single roving. 

The path of the yam while passing through the rolls, that is, 
the working plane of the rolls, makes an angular inclination 
with a horizontal plane varying from 15° to 35°, commonly 
spoken of as the angle, or pitch, of the rolls. For frames spin- 
ning waip yam, the angle is usually about 24°; for frames 
spinning filling yam, the usual angle is about 31°. With warp 
yam, especially when considerable twist is being inserted, the 
angle at which the rolls are set does not very materially affect 
the yam, but with filling yam, especially if slack-twisted 
and spun from short-staple cotton, a considerable pitch is 
required. 

The ring is caused to rise and fall by a builder motion and the 
yam is wound around the bobbin in two different forms. In 
winding the yam on a warp-wind bobbin it is wound in layers 
that extend nearly the entire length of the bobbin, each suc- 
ceeding layer being slightly shorter than the preceding, which 
gives to the full bobbin a taper at both ends. When winding 
the yam on a filling- wind bobbin each layer instead of extending 
from one end of the bobbin to the other extends only a short 
distance, and each succeeding layer is moved slightly higher on 
the bobbin. 



192 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Since the bobbin tends to wind on itself more yam than is 
delivered, a tension is maintained in the yam, and this tension 
being transmitted to the traveler causes the latter to revolve 
around the ring on which it is mounted. The traveler is made 
just sufficiently heavy to make it necessary that the yam exert- 







SIZES OF TRAVELERS 








Wt. 




Wt. 




Wt. 




Wt. 




of 10 




of 10 




of 10 




of 10 


No. 


Trav. 


No. 


Trav. 


No. 


Trav. 


No. 


Trav. 




Gr. 




Gr. 




Gr. 




Gr. 


25-0 


1 


lf-0 


8§ 


24 


60 


49 


110 


24-0 


li 


1-0 


9 


25 


62 


50 


112 


23-0 


l§ 


1 


10 


26 


64 


51 


114 


22-0 


If 


2 


11 


27 


66 


52 


116 


21-0 


2 


3 


12 


28 


68 


53 


118 


20-0 


2i 


4 


13 


29 


70 


54 


120 


19-0 


2| 


5 


14 


30 


72 


55 


122 


18-0 


2| 


6 


16 


31 


74 


56 


124 


17-0 


3 


7 


18 


32 


76 


57 


126 


16-0 


3i 


8 


20 


33 


78 


58 


128 


15-0 


3i 


9 


23 


34 


80 


59 


130 


14-0 


3f 


10 


26 


35 


82 


60 


132 


13-0 


4 


11 


30 


36 


84 


61 


134 


12-0 


4i 


12 


33 


37 


86 


62 


136 


11-0 


4t 


13 


36 


38 


88 


63 


138 


10-0 


41 


14 


39 


39 


90 


64 


140 


9-0 


5 


15 


42 


40 


92 


65 


142 


8-0 


5^ 


16 


44 


41 


94 


66 


144 


7-0 


5i 


17 


46 


42 


96 


67 


146 


6H) 


5i 


18 


48 


43 


98 


68 


148 


6-0 


6 


19 


50 


44 


100 


69 


150 


5-0 


6i 


20 


52 


45 


102 


70 


152 


4-0 


7 


21 


54 


46 


104 


71 


154 


3-0 


7h 


22 • 


56 


47 


106 


72 


156 


2-0 


8 


23 


58 


48 


108 


73 


158 



some strain before causing the traveler to revolve, and yet this 
strain is not great enough to break the yam. If the front rolls 
deliver 471 in. per min. and the bobbin is f in. in diameter, 471 
-4- (3.1416X1) =200, nearly, revolutions of the bobbin will be 
taken up in winding on this roving, and if the bobbin make 
9,000 rev. per min., the traveler v/illmake 9,000-200 = 8,800 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



193 



revolutions as it is carried around by the yam. This will have 
exactly the same effect as if 471 in. of yam were held firmly at 
one end and the other end twisted 8,800 times. 

Travelers. — ^As travelers are often nui at a speed of 50 mi. an 
hour, day in and day out, they should be carefully made. 
Travelers are prepared from the highest grade steel wire 
drawn to the correct size and gauged to .001 in. This wire 

TRAVELERS FOR WARP YARN 



o 


u 


<-< 


<4-l 

O u 

-s > 
a s 


1 Weight of 10 
Travelers 
in Grains. 


o 

p 




few 


O w 

as 
1^ 


Weight of 10 
Travelers 
in Grains. 


4 


4950 


2" 


14 


39 


32 


9500 


If" 


7-0 


5i 


6 


5900 


2 


12 


33 


34 


9600 


If 


9-0 


5 


8 


6700 


2 


9 


23 


36 


9700 


11 


11-0 


4^ 


10 


7250 


2 


8 


20 


38 


9800 


If 


13-0 


4 


11 


7500 


2 


7 


18 


40 


9700 


If 


14-0 


31 


12 


7750 


2 


6 


16 


45 


9700 


11 


15-0 


31 


13 


7950 


2 


6 


16 


50 


9700 


U 


16-0 


3i 


i 14 


8100 


2 


5 


14 


55 


9600 


u 


16-0 


3i 


15 


8300 


2 


4 


13 


60 


9600 


u 


17-0 


3 


16 


8450 


2 


3 


12 


65 


9600 


u 


17-0 


3 


17 


8600 


2 


2 


11 


70 


9500 


1§ 


18-0 


2f 


18 


8750 


2 


1 


10 


75 


9500 


u 


18-0 


2f 


19 


8850 


2 


1-0 


9 


80 


9300 


1* 


19-0 


21 


20 


8900 


2 


li-0 


8i 


85 


9100 


n 


19-0 


21 


21 


9050 


2 


2-0 


8 


90 


9100 


If 


20-0 


2i 


22 


9100 


2 


3-0 


7i 


95 


9000 


If 


21-0 


2 


23 


9150 


2 


4-0 


7 


100 


8700 


If 


22-0 


If 


24 


9200 


2 


5-0 


6i 


110 


8500 


If 


23-0 


11 


28 


9500 


If 


6-0 


6 













is flattened, rolled, and annealed, after which it is cut and bent 
on automatic machines to the shape desired. The travelers 
are then hardened, tempered, scoured, and polished, each 
process requiring the greatest skill and exactness. 

Travelers are numbered by one maker, as shown in the 
accompanying table. 

It is impossible to give a definite rule by whicii to find the 
weight of traveler to use for certain counts of yam. The 



194 



COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



following are general principles, however: (1) A larger ring 
requires a lighter traveler. (2) A coarser yarn requires a 
heavier traveler. (3) Putting more twist into the yam may 
require a heavier traveler. (4) A better grade of stock will 
stand a heavier traveler. (5) Old rings require heavier trav- 
elers than new ones. (6) During moist, sticky weather trav- 
elers run hard and fly off; under these circumstances a lighter 







TRAVELERS FOR FILLING YARN 










u 


^ > 


o 

■"* to CO 


U r-< 

-9 rt 


•I1 


Is 


(-1 


o 

'-' tn to 


it 

^o 




it 
O 


Weight 
Trave 
in Gri 


1"^ 


(^ o 


i'2 


O 


Weight 
Trave 
in Gr; 


4 


4000 


li" 


16 


44 


32 


7900 


If" 


9-0 


5 


6 


4800 


1* 


13 


36 


34 


7900 


If 


11-0 


41 


8 


5450 


U 


10 


26 


36 


7900 


If 


13-0 


4 


10 


5950 


11 


8 


20 


38 


7900 


If 


14-0 


3f 


11 


6150 


11 


7 


18 


40 


7900 


li 


15-0 


31 


12 


6350 


11 


6 


16 


45 


7900 


U 


16-0 


3i 


13 


6500 


11 


5 


14 


50 


7900 


U 


17-0 


3 


14 


6700 


11 


4 


13 


55 


7900 


IJ 


17-0 


3 


15 


6850 


11 


3 


12 


60 


7900 


li 


18-0 


21 


16 


6950 


H 


2 


11 


65 


7800 


li 


18-0 


2f 


17 


7100 


n 


1 


10 


70 


7800 


li 


19-0 


2| 


18 


7200 


n 


1-0 


9 


75 


7800 


li 


19-0 


2| 


19 


7300 


11 


2-0 


8 


80 


7700 


li 


20-0 


2i 


20 


7400 


u 


4-0 


7 


85 


7600 


li 


20-0 


2i 


21 


7500 


u 


4-0 


7 


90 


7400 


li 


21-0 


2 


22 


7600 


n 


5-0 


6* 


95 


7400 


li 


22-0 


If 


23 


7700 


1* 


5-0 


61 


100 


7200 


li 


23-0 


U 


24 


7800 


1* 


6-0 


6 


110 


6900 


li 


24-0 


li 


28 


7900 


If 


7-0 


5i 













traveler should be used. (7) Short stock, weak staple, or 
heavily-drafted yarns require a lighter traveler than the same 
numbers spun under better conditions. (8) The higher the 
speed the lighter the traveler, and vice versa; the variation is 
in the proportion of one or two grades of travelers to each 1,000 
rev. of spindle. (9) Without separators a few grades heavier 
traveler will be required. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



195 



The accompanying tables are given as guides in selecting the 
size of traveler to be used for warp and for filling yarns. 

Spindles. — The spindles form one of the most important 
parts of a ring spinning frame, and on them depends to a great 
extent the successful and economical operation of ring spinning 
frames. The modem ring-frame spindle is known as a gravity 
spindle, sometimes called a top, an elastic, or sl flexible spindle, 
which indicates that it is allowed to find its own best center of 
rotation within certain limits, thus reducing or removing the 
liability of excessive vibration and wear. The older style of 
spindle was a rigid spindle, and this vibration and wear was 
a frequent occurrence when the spindle became slightly out 
of balance. 



SIZES 


OF 


BOBBINS 










Diameter of Barrel 


Number of Yam 


Warp 
Inch 


Filling 
Inch 


4s to 16s 
16s to 30s 
30s to 40s 
40s to 100s 


3 

4 
3 

I 

4 

1 


1 

i 



Bobbins. — The bobbin should fit the top of the spindle 
closely, but not tightly, and should fit snugly the sleeve bearing 
for a distance of about f in. Where a cup is used it should 
project into the cup about | in. The accompanying table gives 
suitable sizes of bobbins for various numbers of yam, both 
warp and filling, assuming that the proper size of ring is used. 
A larger ring requires a larger bobbin. 

Dimensions. — The length of the traverse should be less for 
fine yams than for coarse yams; 5| in. is about the average, 
7 in. being about the maximtmi traverse and 4f in. the mini- 
mum. The speed of the spindle has to be higher in making 
fine yams than in the case of coarse yams and higher for warp 
yams than for filling yams, because the additional amount of 



196 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



twist that has to be put in the fine yam or warp yam will 
seriously reduce the speed of the front roll, and consequently 
the production of the frame, if the spindle speed is not high. 



DIMENSIONS OF R] 


[NG 


SPINNING FRAMES 


Warp 


U 

>H 

•4-1 
O 

u 

(D 

a 


Filling 


Gauge 

of 
Spindles 

Inches 


Diam- 
eter of 
Ring 

Inches 


Length 

Traverse 
Inches 


Gauge 

of 
Spindles 
Inches 


Diam- 
eter of 
Ring 

Inches 


Length 

of 
Traverse 

Inches 


3i 


2i 


7 


4 
9 
10 
11 
15 
16 
17 
20 
21 
25 
26 
27 
28 
30 
31 
35 
36 
37 
39 
40 
41 
44 
45 
50 
51 
60 
70 
80 


2f 


If 






21 




3 


11 


6i 




2 






u 










6 


If 






If 


6 


If 






1§ 


5§ 




5i 






If 


u 


5 




5 



The accompanying table indicates approximately the cus- 
tomary gauge of the spindles, the diameter of the rings, and the 
lengfth of traverse for the principal numbers of warp and filling 
yams between 4s and 80s. 



COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



ly; 



The term gauge used in connection with spinning frames 
implies the distance from the center of one spindle to the center 
of the next spindle in the same row. Frames are usually built 




Fig. 2 



with from 160 to 288 spindles, although they may be built with 
a greater or less number. In speaking of the number of spindles 
of a ring frame, both sides are included; consequently, a frame 
of 288 spindles would have 144 spindles on a side. 



198 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Calculations. — Speed calculations for ring frames are illus- 
trated, by the following examples: 

Example 1. — Find the speed of the cylinder n. Fig. 2, when 
the driving shaft makes 400 rev. per min. and carries a 30-in. 
pulley that drives a lOf -in. pulley on the cylinder shaft w. 

Solution. — 

400X30 

=1,116.279 rev. per min. 

lOf 

Example 2. — If the cylinder n. Fig. 2, makes 1,116.279 rev. 

per min., find the speed of the. front roll shaft ws. 

Solution. — 

1,116.279X42X22X45 

=116.279 rev. per min. 

42X88X108 

Example 3. — If the cylinder n. Fig. 2, is 7 in. in diameter 

and makes 1,116.279 rev. per min., find the speed of the spindles 

if the whorl around which the band passes is il in. in actual 

diameter. 

Note. — In connection with finding the speed of spindles a 
question arises as to where the diameter of the whorl should 
be taken. It is customarily taken at the bottom of the groove, 
although theoretically the diameter should be considered a 
little larger than this, in order to allow for the thickness of the 
spindle band; consequently, the calculation should be made 
with the diameter taken at the center of the band, about xt in. 
being added to the diameter of the whorl in order to make 
allowance for this, this dimension being termed the working 
diameter. 

Solution. — if in.+^ in. = 11 in., working diameter of 

whorl. 

1,116.279X7 

= 9,617.172 rev. per mm. 

16 

Note. — The question of slippage also arises in connection 
with the speed of the spindles. This is a variable quantity, 
depending on the tension of the bands, the oiling of the spindles, 
the number of the yarn being spun, the weight of the travelers, 
and other factors. The loss from the calculated speed of the 
spindles, due to slippage, will vary from 5 to 10%, but as 5% 
is the customary allowance it will be adopted in these calcu- 
lations. Making this allowance, example 3 would be com- 
pleted as follows: 

100%-5%=95%,or .95 
9,617.172 X .95 = 9,136.313 rev. per min. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 199 

To find the speed of the traveler when the speed of the- 
spindle, the speed of the front roll, and the diameter of the 
bobbins are known: 

Rule. — Find the number of revolutions per minute of the bob- 
bin necessary to take up the amount of yarn delivered per minute 
by the front roll. Subtract this number of revolutions per minute 
of the bobbin from the revolutions per minute of the spindle. 

Example. — If the spindles make 9,136.313 rev. per min. and. 
the front roll delivers 365.302 in. per minute, what is the speei 
of the travelers when the bobbins are | in. in diameter? 

365.302 

Solution. — ■ =132.890, the rev. per mm. of bob- 

1X3.1416 

bins necessary to take up amount delivered by front roll. 
9,136.313-132.890 = 9,003.423 rev. per min. of traveler 

Twist calculations for ring frames are not entirely accurate 
on account of several variable factors that affect the amount of 
twist in the yam. 

To find the turns of twist per inch being placed in the yarn: 

Rule I. — When figuring from the gears, consider the gear 
on the end of the front roll as a driver. Multiply all the driving 
gears and the diameter of the cylinder together and divide by the 
product of all the driven gears, the working diame er of the whorl, 
and the circumference of the front roll. 

Example 1. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being placed 
in yam spun on a frame geared as shown in Fig. 2, if the 
diameter of the front roll is 1 in., the cylinder 7 in., and the 
working diameter of the whorl xf in? 

Solution. — 

108X88X42X7 

= 26.326, turns per in. 

45X22X42XHX3.1416X1 

Rule II. — In case the speed of the spindles and the number of 
inches of yarn delivered by the front roll are known, divide the 
speed of the spindles, without any allowance for slippage, by the' 
inches delivered per minute by the front roll. 

Example 2. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being inserted 
in yam if the spindles make 9,617.172 rev. per min. and the 
front roll delivers 365.302 in. per min.? 

Solution.— 9,617.172^365.302 = 26.326, tums per in. 



200 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

To find the constant for twist from the gears: 

Rule. — Consider the gear on the end of the front roll as a 
driver and the twist gear as a 1 -tooth gear. Multiply together 
all the driving gears and the diameter of the cylinder and divide 
by the product of all the driven gears, the working diameter of 
the whorl, and the circumference of the front roll. 

Example. — ^What is the constant for twist with the frame 
geared as shown in Fig. 2, if the diameter of the front roll is 
1 in., the cylinder 7 in, and the working diameter of the 
whorl xf iO" 

Solution. — 

108X88X42X7 

— = 1,184.697, constant 

1X22X42XMX3.1416X1 

To find the twist per inch when the constant for twist and 
the twist gear are known: 

Rule. — Divide the constant by the number of teeth in the twist 
gear. 

Example. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being inserted 
in yam if the constant for twist is 1,184.697 and the twist gear 
contains 45 teeth? 

Solution. — 1,184.697-7-45 = 26.326, turns per in. 

To find the necessary twist gear to give a required number 
of turns per inch when the constant is known: 

Rule. — Divide the constant by the twist required. 

Example. — If the constant for a train of gears is 1,184.697* 
what size twist gear will be required to give 20 turns per inch 
in the yam? 

Solution. — 

1,184.697-7-20 = 59.2, or a 59-tooth gear (practically) 

The calciilations given in connection with twist make no 
allowance for any slippage that may occur, or for any loss 
caused by the traveler speed being slightly less than the 
spindle speed. These points are sometimes taken into con- 
sideration, although the contraction of the yarn, due to the 
twist inserted, generally compensates for any loss due to 
these causes. 

In determining the amount of twist to be placed in either 
warp or filling yam spun on a ring frame, a constant is used 
that multiplied by the square root of the coimts gives the 



COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION 



201 



required number of turns per inch. For ordinary warp yam 
spun on ring frames the constant is usually 4.75, but for 
filling it is 3.25. These figures, however, are varied accord- 
ing to the twist required, the quality of the yam to be made, 
or the kind of stock being used. Long stock does not require 
so much twist in proportion as short stock. Filling yam from 
carded stock requires, as a rule, from 1| to 2| turns per inch 
more twist than the square root of the counts multiplied by 



120 



lOS 




30^ 



Draft Change. 
Crtar 




l"iia 



*«r 



Pig. 3 



3.25. On combed stock the standard number of turns is suffi- 
cient, since combed stock does not require so much twist for 
the same nvunbers as carded stock. Fine filling yams or yams 
for twisting are spun with less twist than 3.25 times the square 
root of the counts. 

Example 1. — ^What is the standard twist in 28s warp yam? 

Solution. — 

-V28 = 5.291. 5.291X4.75 = 25.132, tums per in. 
. Example 2. — ^What is the standard twist in 36s filling yam? 

Solution.-— >/36 = 6. 6X3.25 = 19.5, tums per in. 



202 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Draft calculations are of importance in connection with 
ring spinning frames, as the draft together with the hank of 
the roving, governs the size of the yam produced. 

Example 1. — Find the draft for rolls geared as shown in 

Fig. 3. 

1X120X84 

Solution.— = 10.971 , draft 

30X35X1 

Example 2. — Find the draft constant for the rolls when 

geared as shown in Fig. 3. 

1X120X84 

Solution. — -=384, constant for draft 

30X1X1 

To find the hanks per spindle produced per day: 

Rule. — Divide the product of the circumference of the front 

roll, the number of revolutions per minute of the front roll, the 

minutes per hour, and the hours per day by the product of the 

number of inches in 1 yd. and the number of yards in one hank. 

ALLOWANCES ON CALCULATED PRODUCTION OF 
RING SPINNING FRAMES 



Warp Yarn 


Filling Yarn 


Numbers 


Allowance 
Per Cent. 


Numbers 


Allowance 
Per Cent. 


5s to 10s 
lOs to 20s 
20s to 30s 
3Cs to 40s 
40s to 55s 
55s to 85s 
85s to 100s 


11 

10 
9 

8 
7 
4 
2 


5s to 10s 
10s to 15s 
15s to 20s 
20s to 30s 
30s to 35s 
35s to 45s 
45s to 60s 


14 
12 
11 
10 

8 
7 
6 



Example. — How many hanks per spindle, per day of 10 hr., 
will be produced by a frame with a front roll 1 in. in diameter 
that makes 116.279 rev. per min.? 

1X3.1416X116.279X60X10 ^ , , 

SOLUTION.- 36X840 -=7.248 hanks 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



203 



When figuring the production of ring frames from the speed 
of the front roll it is necessary to make certain allowances, 
since the frame is not running continually, owing to the stop- 
pages necessitated by cleaning, oiling, and doffing. These 
allowances will vary with the yam spun, since coarse yam 
requires more frequent doffing than fine yarn, owing to the 

PRODUCTION OF WARP SPINNING FRAMES 





Weight 




Rev. 
of 

Front 
Roll 


Rev. 


Hanks 


Pounds 


Number 
of Yarn 


per 
Yard 


Twist 
per 

T 1 


9f 
Spindle 


per 
Day 


per 
Day 




in 


Inch 




per 


per 


per 




Grains 




per 
Minute 


Minute 


Spindle 


Spindle 


10 


.833 


15.02 


146.2 


6.900 


8.295 


.829 


12 


.694 


16.45 


143.2 


7,400 


8.214 


.685 


14 


.595 


17.77 


139.7 


7,800 


8.013 


.572 


16 


.521 


19.00 


137.3 


8,200 


7.875 


.492 


18 


.463 


20.15 


134.2 


8,500 


7.698 


.428 


20 


.417 


21.24 


131.8 


8,800 


7.560 


.378 


22 


.379 


22.27 


128.6 


9,000 


7.376 


.335 


24 


.347 


23.27 


124.5 


9,100 


7.141 


.298 


26 


.320 


24.22 


122.2 


9,300 


7.085 


.272 


28 


.297 


25.13 


117.8 


9,300 


6.830 


.244 


30 


.277 


26.02 


115.0 


9,400 


6.668 


.223 


32 


.260 


26.87 


112.4 


9,500 


6.516 


.205 


34 


.245 


27.69 


109.1 


9,500 


6.326 


.186 


36 


.231 


28.50 


106.1 


9,500 


6.218 


.173 


38 


.219 


29.28 


103.2 


9.500 


6.048 


.159 


40 


.208 


30.04 


100.6 


9,500 


5.896 


.147 


42 


.198 


30.78 


98.2 


9,500 


5.755 


.137 


44 


.189 


31.50 


96.0 


9,500 


5.626 


.128 


46 


.181 


32.21 


93.8 


9,500 


5.556 


.121 


48 


.174 


32.90 


91.9 


9,500 


5.443 


.113 


50 


.166 


33.58 


90.9 


9,600 


5.384 


.108 



bobbins being tilled more rapidly. The accompanying table 
gives the allowances usually made for different counts of yam. 

To find the total production, in pounds, of several frames 
when the number of hanks produced by each spindle is known: 

Rule. — Find the production, in pounds, of each frame by 
multiplying the number of spindles in the frame by the hanks 
Produced by each spindle and dividing the result by the counts 
being spun. Add the results obtained for each frame. 



204 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Example. — If four frames of 160 spindles produce, respect- 
ively, 37 hanks per spindle c^f 36s, 33 hanks per spindle of 50s, 
28 hanks per spindle of 70s, and 27 hanks per spindle of 80s, 
in 1 wk., what is the total production for the week? 

160X37 
Solution. — 



36 


= 154.4' 


14 ib. o 


160X33 
50 


= 105.6 lb. of i 


160X28 
70 


= 64 lb. 


of 70s 


160X27 


= 54 lb. 


of 80s 



80 
164.444 + 105.6+64+54 = 388.044 lb., total production for 1 wk. 

PRODUCTION OF FILLING SPINNING FRAMES 





Weight 




Rev. 
of 


Rev. 


Hanks 


Pounds 


Number 
of Yarns 


per 
Yard 


Twist 
per 


Front 
Roll 


of 
Spindle 


per 
Day 


per 
Day 




in 
Grains 


Inch 


per 
Minute 


per 
Minute 


per 
Spindle 


per 
Spindle 


10 


.833 


10.27 


161.2 


5,200 


8.945 


.894 


12 


.694 


11.26 


158.2 


5,600 


8.778 


.731 


14 


.595 


12.16 


156.9 


6,000 


8.706 


.622 


16 


.521 


13.00 


155.4 


6,350 


8.719 


.545 


18 


.463 


13.79 


152.2 


6,600 


8.540 


.476 


20 


.417 


14.53 


148.8 


6,800 


8.444 


.422 


22 


.379 


15.24 


146.1 


7,000 


8.290 


.376 


24 


.347 


15.92 


139.9 


7,000 


7.938 


.331 


26 


.320 


16.57 


138.2 


7,200 


7.927 


.305 


28 


.297 


17.20 


134.1 


7,250 


7.692 


.275 


30 


.277 


17.80 


129.6 


7,250 


7.514 


.250 


32 


.260 


18.38 


126.3 


7,300 


7.323 


.229 


34 


.245 


18.95 


122.4 


7,300 


7.097 


.208 


36 


.231 


19.50 


119.1 


7,300 


6.980 


.194 


38 


.219 


20.03 


117.6 


7,400 


6.892 


.181^ 


40 


.208 


20.55 


115.4 


.7,450 


6.835 


.171 


42 


.198 


21.06 


113.3 


7,500 


6.711 


.160 


44 


.189 


21.56 


110.7 


7,500 


6.557 


.149 


46 


.181 


22.04 


108.3 


7.500 


6.414 


.139 


48 


.174 


22.52 


105.9 


7,500 


6.272 


.131 


50 


.166 


22.98 


103.9 


7,500 


6.218 


.124 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 205 

To find the average number of yarn being produced: 
Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds produced by each 
frame by the counts of yarn being spun. Add the results thus 
obtained and divide by the total number of pounds. 

Example. — ^What is the average number of yam being spun 
if fotir frames produce, respectively, 164.444 lb. of 36s, 105.6 
lb. of 50s. 64 lb. of 70s, and 54 lb. of 80s? 
Solution.— 1 6 4.4 4 4 X 36 = 5 9 1 9.9 8 4 
1 5.6 X 50 = 5 2 8 0.0 
6 4.0 X 70 = 4 4 8 0.0 
5 4.0 X 8 = 4 3 2 0.0 

3 8 8.0 4 4 1 9 9 9 9.9 8 4 

19,999.984-^38S.044 = 51.540s, average number of yam 



MULE SPINNING 

The chief difference between the ring spinning frame and 
the mule is that the former is a constant, and the latter an 
intermittent, spinning machine. There is also a difference 
in the form in which the yam is produced. The ring spin- 
ning frame winds it on a wooden or paper bobbin, and the 
mule produces yarn in the form of a cop. In the mechan- 
ism by which the yam is produced, the ring spinning frame 
differs very considerably from the mule; in fact, the two 
machines are radically different in principle, construction, 
and operation. 

The mule has three principal objects: (1) the reduction of 
the roving to the counts of yam desired; (2) twisting the yarn 
to give it sufficient strength for the purpose intended; (3) wind- 
ing the yam in suitable form for use at the next process. 

A sectional view of the essential parts of the mule is given 
in Fig. 1. Generally speaking, the machine proper consists 
of a headstock, which contains most of the mechanism for opera- 
ting the various parts; a creel b for holding the roving that is 
to be drawn and converted into yam; drawing rolls c, ci, a 
for inserting the required amount of draft to reduce the size 
of the roving; and a carriage d that carries spindles far twisting 
and winding the yam, a cylinder for driving the spindles, and 



206 



CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION 







COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 207 

fallers for guiding the yam on to the spindles and keeping it 
under tension during winding. 

The bobbins of roving bi from the last fly-frame process are 
placed in the creel b and the ends conducted to the drawing 
rolls C2, ci, c, through which they pass, in order that they may 
be drafted as required. After leaving the front drawing rolls, 
the stock passes to the spindles di, which are carried by the 
carriage. The carriage recedes from the rolls, as the stock is 
being delivered, but after the rolls cease to deliver, it returns. 
When the rolls first commence to deliver, the spindles occupy 
position (a), shown in dotted lines, and gradually recede in 
the direction shown by the arrow, until position (fc) is reached, 
when the rolls stop delivering and the carriage ceases to naove 
outwards. The extent of the outward movement of the car- 
riage, known as the draw, or stretch, varies from 53 to 68 in., 
the general length being about 62 or 64 in. 

During the outward run of the carriage, the spindles are 
revolving and inserting twist in the yam, which is accomplished 
by having the upper ends of the spindles slightly below the 
delivering point of the rolls, as shown by the dotted lines in 
position (a) , and the spindles inclined, with the upper end nearer 
the rolls than the lower. 

Since the spindle is inclined toward the rolls and is revolving 
as the stock is being delivered, a few open spirals of yam are 
wound on its blade between the nose, or upper end, of the cop 
and the point of the spindle. If the spindle were extended, the 
yam would wind on it in open spirals until it formed a right 
angle with the spindle; but since the spindle is not thus 
extended, after the coils of yam have reached its upper end, 
every time it makes one revolution the upper coil is slipped 
off just as it is being completed, thus inserting one turn of 
twist in the yam. The spindles by receding from the rolls 
keep the yam under tension as it is being delivered, and since 
they are continually revolving dixring this time, they are 
continually inserting twist. The inclination of the spindles 
assists in allowing the yarn to pass easily over their ends, 
especially when the carriage is near the end of its outward 
run, as the angle between the yam and the spindles approaches 
nearer to a right angle than when the carriage is first starting 



20S COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

out. This is shown by positions (a) and (&). The spindles 
are driven by bands passing around the revolving cylinder d2 
and the whorls on the spindles. 

While the carriage is running out, the fallers di, ds, known 
as the winding and counter fallers, respectively, are not in con- 
tact with the yam, but occupy the positions shown, the wind- 
ing-faller wire being above the yam and the counter-, or ten- 
sion-, faller wire, below. The winding faller is for the purpose 
of guiding the yam on to the spindles in the proper form to 
build up a cop, while the counter faller keeps the yam under 
tension dtiring winding. 

When the carriage has reached position (6), the spindles 
and rolls are stopped and the spinning is completed. In order 
that the yam may be wound on the spindles, the open coils 
of yam between the nose of the cops and the ends of the 
spindles must be unwound; this is done by causing the spindles 
to make a few revolutions in the opposite direction to that in 
which they revolve during spinning and winding, and is known 
as backing off. After the open coils are entirely unwound, 
the spindles stop revolving in this direction, the fallers in the 
meantime having assumed their proper positions for winding. 
Winding commences as the carriage starts to run in and con- 
tinues, the yam being guided on to the spindles by the wind- 
ing faller, until position (a) is reached, when the carriage and 
spindles stop, which completes the cycle of operations. The 
rolls now begin to deliver, the spindles to revolve, and the 
carriage to move outwards, as before. 

Calculations. — To find the niimber of turns of twist being 
inserted in the yam, the following rule may be applied: 

Rule. — Assuming the front-roll gear to be a driving gear, 
divide the product of the driving gears and the diameters, in 
inches, of the rim pulley and cylinder by the product of all 
the driven gears and the diameters, in inches, of the cylinder 
pulley, whorl, and the front roll multiplied by 3.1416 to give its 
circumference. 

Example. — Find the number of turns of twist per inch 
being inserted in the yam, with a deduction of 5% for 
slippage of bands, belts, etc., according to the data given in 
Fig. 2. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 209 

48X60X66X16X6 

Solution. — ; • = 22.223 

24X60X22XllXfX 1X3.1416 

5% of 22.223 = 1.111. 22.223-1.111 = 21.112, turns of twist. 

To find the number of turns of twist per inch being inserted 
in the yam when the number of revolutions per minute of the 
spindles and the number of inches of stock delivered per minute 
are known: 

Rule. — Divide the number of revolutions per minute of the 
spindles by the number of inches of stock delivered per minute 
by the front roll. 

Example. — Find the number of turns of twist per inch being 
inserted in the yam when the spindles make 9,819.786 rev. 
per min. and the front roll delivers 465.113 in. of stock. 

Solution. — 

9,819.786-^465.113 = 21.112, tums of twist per in. 

The twist is generally altered by changing the rim pulley 
or the speed gear. The speed gear is the one changed under 
ordinary conditions, which require only a slight alteration in 
the amount of twist, but for a considerable change the rim 
pulley is altered; in extreme cases both are changed. Referring 
to Fig. 2, the spur gear C23, of 66 teeth driven by the 22-tooth 
gear C22 on the front end of the rim shaft is the speed gear. 

To find the constant for twist for the rim pulley when the 
sizes of the gears, pulleys, etc. are known: 

Rule. — Perform the calculations in exactly the same manner 
and select exactly the same data as when finding the twist, except 
that the rim pulley should be considered as 1 in. in diameter. 

Example. — Find the constant for twist for the rim pulley 
f according to the data given in Fig. 2. 

Solution. — 

48X60X66X1X6 ^ „ _ 

; — — =1.3889, constant 

24X60X22X11X1X1X3.1416 

To find the constant for twist for the speed gear when the 
sizes of the gears, pulleys, etc. are known: 

Rule. — Perform the calculations in exactly the same manner 
and select exactly the same data as when finding the twist, except 
that the speed gear should be considered as having only 1 tooth. 

Example. — Find the constant for twist for the speed gear 
<:23 according to the data given in Fig. 2. 



-210 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Solution. — 

48X60X1X16X6 



.3367, constant 



24X60X22X11X1X1X3.1416 

To find the number of turns of twist per inch being inserted 
in the yarn when the constant for the rim pulley and the size, 
or diameter, of the rim pulley are known : 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the rim pulley being used by 
the constant for twist for the rim pulley. 

Example. — Find the turns of twist per inch being inserted 
in the yam, making a deduction of 5% for slippage of bands, 
belts, etc., when a 16-in. rim pulley is used and the constant 
is 1.3889. 

Solution.— 16X1.3889 = 22.222. 5% of 22.222 = 1.111; 
22.222-1.111 = 21.111, turns of twist per in. 

To find the ntunber of turns of twist per inch being inserted 
in the yam when the constant for the speed gear and size of the 
speed gear are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the size of the speed gear being used by the 
constant for twist for the speed gear. 

Example. — Find the turns of twist per inch being inserted 
in the yarn, making a deduction of 5% for slippage of bands, 
belts, etc., when a 66-tooth speed gear is being used and the 
constant is .3367. 

Solution.— 66 X. 3367 = 22.222. 5% of 22.222 = 1.111. 
22.222-1.111 = 21.111, tums of twist per in. 

To find the diameter of the rim pulley being used when the 
calculated twist and the constant for twist for the rim pulley 
are known: 

Rule. — Divide the number of turns of twist per inch by the 
constant for twist for the rim pulley. 

Example. — Find the diameter of the rim pulley required to 
produce 22,223 tums of twist per inch when the constant for 
twist for the rim pulley is 1.3889. 

Solution.-^ 22.223-^-1.3889 = 16 in., dia. of rim pulley. 

To find the size of the speed gear being used when the cal- 
culated twist and the constant for twist for the speed gear 
are known: 

Rule. — Divide the number of turns of twist per inch by the 
constant for twist for the speed gear. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 211 

Example. — Find the size of the speed gear required to pro- 
duce 22.223 turns of twist per inch when the constant for twist 
for the speed gear is .3367. 

Solution. — 

22.223-^.3367 = 66.002, or practically a 66-tooth gear 

To find the twist to be inserted in a certain class of yam, the 
square root of the counts to be spun and the standard multi- 
plier for that class of work must be known, in which case the 
square root of the counts is multiplied by the standard multi- 
plier. The standard multiplier varies for different classes of 
work and kinds of cotton; the following are not absolute, but 
are given as a guide: For warp and filling yams spun on the 
mule from American cotton, 3.75 and 3.25 respectively, are 
used; for Egyptian cotton, 3.6 and 3.18, respectively; and 2.75 
for filling yams spun from sea-island cotton. For hosiery yams 
the multiplier ranges from 2.25 to 2.6, as hosiery yams are 
softer than weaving yams and require less twist. Long stock 
requires less twist than short stock, and combed stock less than 
carded stock. In many cg,ses the constant multiplier is given 
with each order, especially with those for hosiery yams. 

Example. — Find the standard number of turns of twist per 
inch for 39s filling yam spun from American cotton. 

Solution.— \39 = 6.244. 6.244X3.25 = 20.293, standard 
number of turns of twist per in. 

If carded stock is being used, the above result will be increased 
about 1 or I5 turns per inch; thus, 20.293-1-1 = 21.293 turns of 
twist per inch for carded stock. 

The following examples illustrate the methods of finding 
the total draft, constant for total draft, size of change gear 
required to produce any desired draft, and the draft produced 
by a certain size of change gear: 

Example. — ^Find the total draft, or the draft between the 

front and back drawing rolls, according to the data given in 

Fig. 2. 

1X120X56 „_„ , , ^ 

Solution. — = 8.626, total draft 

19X41X1 

Example. — Find the constant for the total draft according 

to the data given in Fig. 2, considering the 41-tooth gear as 

the draft gear. 



212 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Solution. — 

1X120X56 



= 353.684, constant for total draft 



19X1X1 

Example. — -Find the size of the draft gear required to pro- 
duce a draft of 8.626 when the constant is 353.684. 

Solution. — 353.684-5-8.626 = 41.002, or practically a 41- 
tooth draft gear. 

Example. — ^Find the draft produced by a 41-tooth draft 
gear when the constant is 353.684. 

Solution.— 353.684^41 = 8.626, draft 

The production of mules may be found in three general 
ways: (1) by taking into consideration the number of stretches 
per minute, the length of each stretch, the number of spindles 
per mule, the counts of yam being spun, and the length of 
time run; (2) by using indicators, or hank clocks; (3) by keep- 
ing an account of the weight of each doff for a given period, 
adding the estimated amount on the spindles at the end of 
this time, and deducting the amount on the spindles at the 
beginning. ' I 

To find the production for a given length of time accord-, 
ing to the first method: j 

Rule I. — Divide the product of the number of stretches per 
minute, the length of each stretch, 60 (the number of minutes 
per hour), the number of hours run, the number of spindles per 
mule, and the number of mules by the product of 36 (the num- 
ber of inches in a yard) , SJfi (the number of yards in a hank) , 
and the counts of the yarn being spun. Usually a deduction of 
about 10% is made for stoppages, such as doffing, cleaning, etc. 

Example. — Find the total number of pounds produced in 

a week of 60 hr., making a deduction of 10% for stoppages, 

etc., by 6 mules of 780 spindles each. The yam being spun 

is 39s and each mule makes 5j draws, or stretches, of 62 in., 

per minute. 

5JX62X60X60X780X6 ,„„, ,_,^ 

Solution.— = 4,871.428 lb. 

36X840X39 

10% of 4,871.428 = 487.142. 4,871.428— 487.142 = 4,384.286 lb. 
To find the production for a given length of time according 
to the second method, that is, using indicators: 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 213 

Rule n. — Multiply the number of hanks per spindle pro- 
duced by each mule by the number of spindles in thai mule and 
divide by the counts of yarn being spun to find the number of 
pounds produced. To find the total number of pounds produced, 
add the number of pounds produced by each mule. Usually 
a deduction of from 2|% upwards is made for waste, etc.', 
although in some cases the indicators are constructed so as to 
provide for this allowance. 

Example. — Find the total number of pounds produced by 
6 mules of 780 spindles each, making a deduction of 3§% for 
waste, etc. The hank clock on each mule registers, respect- 
ively, 38.25, 37.5, 37, 37.25, 38.75, and 38.5 hanks, and the 
counts of the yam being spun are 39s. 

38.25X780 
Solution. — =765 lb. 



39 
37.5X780 

39 
37X78 

39 
37.25X780 

39 

38.75X780 

39 

38.5X780 



= 750 lb. 

= 740 lb. 
= 745 lb. 
= 775 lb. 
= 770 lb. 



39 

765+750+740+745+775+770 = 4,545 lb. 3|% of 4,535 
= 159.075. 4,545-159.075 = 4,385.925 lb. of 39s yam 

Rule m. — Multiply the sum of the hanks per spindle pro- 
duced by each mule by the number of spindles per mule and 
divide by the counts of the yarn. The usual deduction for waste 
should be made. 

Example. — Same as example under Rule II. 

Solution.— 38.25+37.5+37+37.25+38.75+38.5 = 

227.25X780 

227.25, total number of hanks. = 4,545 lb. 3|% 

39 

of 4,545 = 159.075. 4,545-159.075 = 4,385.925, total number 

of lb. of 39s yanij^ 



214 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

To find the production for a given length of time according 
to the third method : \ 

Rule rV. — Find the total number of pounds doffed for 'the 
given time, add to this the estimated number of pounds on 
spindles at the end of this time, and then deduct the number of 
pounds on the spindles at the commencement of this time. 

Example. — Find the total number of pounds of yarn pro- 
duced in 1 wk. by 6 mules that have produced 121 doffs of 
practically 36 lb. each. At the end of the week there is approxi- 
mately 100 lb. of yam on the spindles, and at the end of the 
previous week, or the beginning of the week under consideration, 
there was 71 lb. 

Solution.— 36X121 = 4,356 lb. doffed. 4,356+100 = 4,456. 
4,456 - 71 = 4,385 lb. produced- 

Changing Cotints. — To find the size of the draft gear required 
to produce a yam of certain counts when the counts of the 3'-arn 
being sptin and the draft gear in use are known and when the 
hank of the back roving remains the same: 

Rule. — Multiply the counts of the yarn being spun by the 
draft gear in use and divide by the counts of the yarn desired. 

Example. — Find the size of the draft gear required to pro- 
duce 45s yam when 39s is being spun with a 41 -tooth draft 
gear. The hank of the back roving is the same in both cases. 

Solution. — 

39X41 

= 35.533, or practically a 36-tooth draft gear 

To find the size of the draft gear required to produce a yam 
of certain counts when the hank of the back roving is to be 
changed, and the counts of the yam being spun, the draft gear 
in use, the hank of the back roving being used, and the hank of 
the back roving to be used are known: 

Rule. — Divide the product of the counts of the yarn being spun, 
the gear being used, and the hank of the back roving to be used by 
the product of the counts of the yarn required and the hank of the 
back roving being used. 

Example. — Find the size of the draft gear required to pro- 
duce 45s yam with a 6-hank back roving when 39s is being 
spun from 4.5-hank back roving with a 41-tooth draft gear. 
The back roving is running single; that is, one end per spindle. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 
PRODUCTION OF MULES 



215 









Pounds per Spindle per 








Week 


No. of 
Yarn 


Stretches 

per Minute, 

64-Inch 

Stretch 


Hanks 

per Spindle 

per Day 




Without 
Roller 
Motion 


With 

5 Per Cent. 

Roller 

Motion 


6 


6.00 


6.85 


6.85 


7.20 


8 


6.00 


6.85 


5.13 


5.39 


10 


6.00 


6.85 


4.11 


4.31 


12 


6.00 


6.85 


3.42 


3.59 


14 


5.50 


6.28 


2.69 


2.82 


16 


5.50 


6.28 


2.35 


2.47 


18 


5.50 


6.28 


2.09 


2.20 


20 


5.50 


6.28 


1.88 


1.97 


22 


5.50 


6.28 


1.71 


1.79 


24 


5.50 


6.28 


1.57 


1.64 


26 


5.25 


6.00 


1.38 


1.45 


28 


5.25 


6.00 


1.28 


1.34 


30 


5.25 


6.00 


1.20 


1.26 


32 


5.25 


6.00 


1.12 


1.17 


34 


5.25 


6.00 


1.05 


1.11 


36 


5.125 


5.85 


.97 


1.02 


38 


5.125 


5.85 


.92 


.97 


40 


5.00 


5.71 


.85 


.89 


42 


5.00 


5.71 


.81 


.85 


44 


4.75 


5.42 


.73 


.77 


46 


4.75 


5.42 


.70 


.74 


48 


4.50 


5.24 


.65 


.68 


50 


4.50 


5.24 


.62 


.66 


52 


4.25 


4.85 


.55 


.58 


54 


4.25 


4.85 


.53 


.56 


56 


4.25 


4.85- 


.51 


.54 


58 


4.25 


4.85 


.50 


.52 


60 


4.125 


4.71 


.47 


.50 


62 


4.125 


4.71 


.45 


.47 


64 


4.125 


4.71 


.44 


.46 . 


66 


4.125 


4.71 


.42 


.44 


68 


4.00 


4.57 


.40 


.42 


70 


4.00 


4.57 


.39 


.41 


72 


4.00 


4.57 


.38 


.40 


74 


4.00 


4.57 


.37 


.38 


76 


4.00 


4.57 


.36 


.37 


78 


4.00 


4.57 


.35 


.36 



Note. — ^Allowance has been made for stoppage for cleaning 
and dofiSng. 



216 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Solution. — 

39X41X6 

=47.377, or practically a 47-tooth draft gear 

; 45X4.5 

To find the size of the speed gear required to give the proper 
twist for any cotints of yam without changing the rim pulley, 
when the counts of the yam being spun, the counts of the yam 
to be spun, and the size of the speed gear being used are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the size of the speed gear being used by th< 
square root of the counts required and divide by the square root 
of the counts being spun. 

Example. — Find the size of the speed gear required for 45s 
yam when 39s is being spun with a 66-tooth speed gear. 

Solution.— -V39 = 6.244; ^[45 = 6.708 

66X6.708 

=70.904, or practically a 71-tooth speed gear 

6.244 

To find the size, or diameter, of the rim pulley reqtiired to 
give the proper twist for any counts of yam without changing 
the speed gear, when the covmts of the yam being spun, the 
counts of the yam to be spun, and the diameter of the rim 
pulley being used are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the rim pulley being used 
by the square root of the counts required and divide by the square 
root of the counts being spun. 

Example. — Find the diameter of the rim piilley required for 
45s yam when 39s is being spvm with a 16-inch rim pulley. 

Solution.— ->/39 = 6.244; V45 = 6.708 

16X6.708 , . , . 

=17.188, or practically a 17-inch rim pulley 

6.244 

To find the size of the builder gear to give the required rate of 
movement to the builder for any counts of yam, when the 
counts of the yam being spun, the size of the builder gear being 
used, and the counts of the yam required are known: 

Rule I. — Multiply the builder gear being used by the square 
root of the counts of the yarn required and divide by the square 
root of the counts of the yarn being spun. 

Example. — Find the size of the builder gear required to spin 
45s yam when 39s yarn is being spun with a 28-tooth builder 
gear. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 217 

Solution. — ^^45 = 6.708; 'V39 = 6.244 

28X6.708 

=30.08, or practically a 30-tooth builder gear 

6.244 . K J B 

Rule n. — Multiply the square of the builder gear being used 
by the counts of yarn that it is desired to spin and divide by the 
counts of yarn being spun. Extract the square root of the result 
thus obtained. 

Example. — Same as example 1. 

282X45 

, Solution. — =904.613 

39 

'V904.615 = 30.077, or practically a 30-tooth builder gear. 

Another method of finding the size of the builder gear for 
any counts of yam requires that the constant for the builder 
gear shall first be found. 

To find the constant for the builder change gear when the 
length of the screw being used and the pitch, or number of 
threads to the inch, in the screw are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the length, in inches, of the part of the screw 
that is being used by the pitch of the screw. 

Example. — Find the constant for the builder change gear 
when 7| in. of a 4-pitch screw is being used during the formation 
of a set of cops. 

Solution. — 7. 5 X 4 = 30, constant 

To find the number of stretches, or draws, in a cop of any 
counts of yam when the weight of the cop, the counts of the 
yam, and the length of the stretch are known; 

Rule. — Divide the product of the weight of the cop, in grains, 
840 (the number of yards in 1 hank) , 36 (the number of inches in 
1 yd.), and the counts of the yarn by the product of 7,000 (the 
number of grains in 1 lb.) and the number of inches in one stretch. 

Example. — Find the number of 62-in. stretches required to 
produce a 330-gr. cop of 39s yam. 

330X840X36X39 

Solution. — = 896.748 stretches 

7,000X62 

To find the size of the builder change gear required for 
any counts of yam when the constant for the change gear, 
the weight of a full cop of yam, the length of one stretch, 
and the counts of the yam required are known: 



218 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Rule. — First find the number of stretches required for a full cop 
of yarn of the weight and counts required, and then divide the 
number of stretches required by the constant. 

Example. — Find the size of the builder gear required for a 

62-in. stretch mule to spin a 330-in. cop of 45s yam when the 

constant for the builder change gear is 30. 

330X840X36X45 

SoLtTTiON. — ■ = 1 ,034.709 stretches 

7,000X62 

1,034.709^30 = 34.49, or practically a 34-tooth builder gear 

Note. — It will be seen that the results obtained by these 
rules vary somewhat. Since, however, the proper size of 
builder gear is influenced by many other factors, such as the 
tension on the yam during winding (which is governed by the 
amount of weight on the counter faller and action of the quad- 
rant), the amount of twist inserted in the yam, etc., no rule 
will give absolutely accurate results. Rules for finding the 
size of the builder gear must therefore be considered as giving 
approximate results only, and it may often be found necessary 
to slightly increase or decrease the calculated size of the builder 
gear as the case may require. 

The horsepower required to drive a mule varies, especially 
during the different periods in its actions. It is generally 
estimated, however, to be about 1 H. P. for every 100 to 110 
spindles for coarse counts, 110 to 120 for medium counts, and 
120 to 130 for fine counts. Generally speaking, a mule of 
about 700 spindles, spinning medium counts, with a spindle 
speed of about 9,000 rev. per min., under favorable conditions 
will require, during the drawing-and-twisting period, about 
25 H. P. for the first 2 or 3 sec. as the carriage starts out; after 
that it decreases to about 10 or 12 H. P. until the carriage com- 
pletes its outward run, when the horsepower is reduced to 
about 1 or 1| until backing off is completed. As winding 
commences and the carriage starts in, the power required is 
increased from 1 or 1| to about 3 H. P. This continues until 
the winding is completed, when the power is decreased to 
practically nothing. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 219 

TWISTING 

The name ply yams is given indiscriminately to all threads 
that are composed of two, three, or more single yams twisted 
together at one operation, and they are distinguished from one 
another by the terms -two-ply, three-ply, and so on. When 
two or more ply threads are twisted together the resulting 
yams are spoken of as cabled yarns. 

The twisting process may be performed on machines of 
various types, depending on two distinct factors: (1) the 
condition of the yam when it is being twisted, and (2) the 
method employed to insert the twist. The yam is twisted 
in two conditions — ^wet or dry — giving the names wet twisters 
and dry twisters to the two types of machines. 

The machine most commonly used for twisting is that known 
in America as a ring twister. The object of the twister is to 
form the ply yam by inserting a suflEicient amount of twist in 
the required direction and to wind the resulting yam on a 
twister bobbin. 

The principle on which the ring twister is constructed and 
operated is to pass the yam from a creel to delivery rolls and 
twist it by passing it through a traveler that is revolved rapidly 
around a ring, by means of a rotating spindle carrying a bobbin; 
the difference between the circumferential speed of the bobbin 
and the speed of the traveler causes the twisted yarn to be 
wound on the bobbin. 

The twister closely resembles the ring spinning frame, a large 
number of parts and motions of which are duplicated on a 
twister. Ring twisters for both wet and dry twisting are 
similar in construction, with the exception that in the wet 
twister, the yarn immediately before being twisted is mois- 
tened by being passed through a trough containing clean 
water. 

Calculations. — The only calculations that are of importance 
in connection with twisters are: (1) those that are useful in 
determining the twist per inch inserted in the ply yam, and (2) 
those that are useful in determining the production of a twister. 
As there are no draft rolls in a twister, the subject of drafts, 
of course, does not enter into any calculations. 



220 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



Example. — If the speed of the front, or delivery, roll of 
a twister corresponds with that of the 90-tooth gear /a, shown 
In the accompanying illustration, what is its speed when the 
cylinder makes 1,185 rev. per min. 

Solution. — 

1,185X20X38 

= 83.388 rev. per mm. of the front roll 

120X90 




Example. — ^Find the number of inches delivered per minute 
by the front roll when it makes 83.388 rev. per min. and is 1| in. 
in diameter. 

Solution.— 83.388X11X3.1416=392.957 in. per min. 

Example. — ^Find the speed of the spindles when the cylin- 
der is 8 in. in diameter and makes 1,185 rev. per min.* the 
spindle whorl being li in. in diameter. 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 221 

Solution. — If the exact diameter of the cyHnder and the 
smallest diameter of the whorl are 'taken, accurate results are 
not obtained, as some allowance should be made for the diam- 
eter of the spindle band, which is usually | in. The most 
nearly correct way is to make an allowance for this both on 
the diameter of the cylinder and of the spindle whorl, but it 
is more convenient and gives sufficiently accurate results to 
use the actual diameter of the cylinder but add | in. to the 
diameter of the spindle whorl at its smallest part. This is the 
practice that is followed here. 

1,185X8 

— =6,894.545 rev. per min. of the spmdles 

Is 

Example. — ^What is the twist per inch being inserted in the 
yam, if the front roll delivers 392.957 in. per min. and the 
spindles make 6,894.545 rev. per min.? 

Solution. — 6,894.545-^-392.957 = 17.545 turns per in. 

Note. — Some millmen make a deduction from the calctilated 
result of 5% to allow for slippage and loss in winding, but this 
should not be done, as the yam contracts during the process 
of twisting in about the correct proportion to compensate for 
such slippage. 

Example. — Find the twist per inch being inserted in the 
yam by figuring through the gears from the front roU to the 
spindles, thus ascertaining the ntmnber of revolutions of the 
spindles per inch delivered by the front roUs. 

Solution. — 

36X90X120X8 

'■ = 17.545 turns per in. 

36X38X20X11X11X3.1416 

Example. — ^Find the constant for twist by figuring through 
the gears from the front roll to the spindles, adding | in. to the 
diameter of the whorl and considering pi as the twist change 
gear. 

Solution. — 

36X90X120X8 

^=350.901, constant 

36X38X1X1|X1§X3.1416 

Example. — Find the twist per inch being inserted in the 
-yam with a 20-tooth twist gear, if the constant is 350.901 
Solution. — 350.901 -r- 20 = 17.545 tums per in. 



222 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 

Example. — Find the twist gear required to produce 17.545 
turns per inch if the constant is 350.901. 

Solution. — 350.901^ 17.545 = 20-tooth twist gear. 

The amount of twist to be inserted in ply yams is specified 
by a multiplier, which, when multiplied by the square root of the 
counts of the single yam to which the ply yam under considera- 
tion would be equal, approximately indicates the turns per inch 
to be inserted. The range of multipliers is from 2.5 to 6.5. 
The smallest are used for mending yams, knitting yams, and 
embroidery yams, since these are commonly required to be soft, 
full yams; larger multipliers are used for yams intended for 
sewing threads, and the largest are for such yams as those 
intended for fishing nets, macrame, and other hard twines, 
harness yam, etc. 

Example. — ^Find the turns per inch to be inserted in 2-ply 
72s using 5 as a multiplier. 

Solution. — Considering the 2-ply yam as a single yarn its 
cotuits would be 

72s4-2 = 36. \36=6. 6X5 = 30 tums per in. 

Example. — -What twist per inch should be inserted in 5-ply 
85s with a multiplier of 6? 
, Solution. — 

85s4-5 = 17 ^17 = 4.1231 4.1321X6 = 24.738 

In some districts in the United States, it is customary to take 
as a multiplier a number that, when multiplied by the square 
root of the cotm.ts of the single yam used to form the ply yam, 
gives the tums per inch in the ply yam; this is also a common 
method in Europe. It is therefore always important to under- 
stand whether a multiplier is to be considered as multiplying 
the square root of the counts of the single yam, forming the 
ply yam, or of a single yam that would be equivalent to the 
completed ply yam, since in the latter case the multiplier is 
larger than in the former. 

Example. — ^What multiplier would be used with which to 
multiply the square root of the single yam in order to give 
30 turns per inch in 2-ply 72s? 

Solution. — a/72 = 8.485 30 -r- 8.485 = 3.5 

The multiplier in this case, 3.5, when multiplied by the 
square root of the counts of the single yams forming the ply 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 223 

yam, gives 30 turns per inch, just as the multiplier 5 gave 30 
turns per inch in a previous example when multiplied by the 
square root of 36, which was considered as the counts of a 
single yam equivalent to 2-ply 72s. 

Production. — As twisters are not provided with hank clocks 
the production is generally figured directly from the front roll, 
which gives only a theoretical production. 

Rule. — To find the number of hanks per spindle, multiply 
the number of inches delivered per minute by the total number of 
minutes run, and divide the product thus obtained by the number 
of yards per hank multiplied by 36 {the number of inches per 
yard). From this calculated production, a certain percentage 
should be allowed for stoppages. 

Example. — If the front roll delivers 392.957 in. per min., 

what is the production for 1 wk. of 60 hr., allowing 6% for 

stoppages? 

392.957X60X60 , , 

Solution. — = 46.780 hanks per spindle 

840X36 

per wk. .94X46.780 = 43.973 hanks. 

The allowance of 6% in this example is not accurate for all 
kinds of twisting, for this varies from 5 to 20% . The allowance is 
intended to compensate for the amount of time lost in stopping 
the frame for doffing and various other purposes. It is least in 
the case of fine yams, as the frames do not require doffing so 
frequently, and greatest in the case of coarse yams. It is also 
greater when several single yams are being twisted than when 
2-ply yams are being made. For example, the allowance for 
2-ply 6s is usually 14%; for 3 -ply, 15%; for 4-ply, 17%; and 
for 6-ply, 20%. For number 20s, the allowances are 10%, 
11%, 12%, and 13% for 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-ply, respectively. For 
40s, the allowances are 6% for 2-ply, 7% for 3-ply, and 8% 
for 4- or 6-ply; for number 80s, 4% for 2-ply, 5% for 3- and 
4-ply, and 6% for 6-ply. This allowance should not be con- 
fused with an allowance sometimes made for slippage. 

Rule. — To find the number of pounds per spindle, divide the 
number of hanks per spindle by the resultant counts. 

Example. — If a frame produces 43.973 hanks per spindle 
per week, what is the production per spindle in pounds if two 
strands of 40s are twisted together? 



22^ 



COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 






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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 



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226 



WARP PREPARATION 



Solution. — 40 4- 2 = 20s, resultant counts. 43.973-5-20 
= 2.198 lb. per spindle per wk. 

The floor space occupied by twisters depends on the number 
of spindles in the frame and the space between the spindles, or 
the gauge of the frame. The number of spindles varies from 

DIMiENSIONS OF TWISTERS 



Size of Rings 


Gauge of 
Spindles 


Size of Rings 


Gauge of 
Spindles 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


41 


5i 


2i 


3| 


4 


5 


2i 


31 


3t 


4i 


2 


3 


3 


4 


If 


2f 



64 to 240, one-half being on each side of the frame; the regular 
sizes contain either 180, 208, or 240 spindles. The sizes of rings 
generally used and the corresponding gauges, or spaces between 
the centers of the spindles, are given in the accompanying table. 



WARP PREPARATION 



SPOOLING 

Warp yam must ultimately be placed either on the loom 
beam to be woven or put up in the form of a bundle to be 
shipped from the mill where it is spun. In either case it must 
first be spooled, in order to obtain a greater length of yarn 
and thus facilitate later processes. The object of the spooler, 
therefore, is to place a suitable lengfth of yarn on a spool, this 
yam being taken from the bobbin or cop on which it has pre- 
viously been wound at the spinning process, or, in some cases, 
at the twister. 

As shown in the accompanying illustration, spoolers are so 
made that many of the parts on one side are duplicated on the 
other, thus permitting the yam to be spooled on both sides of 



K 


? . 

r 


\ 




I 


— 1_ 


1/ 


I 



WARP PREPARATION 



227 



the machine. The bobbins j, as they come from the spinning 
frame are placed in the bobbin holder k, the end of yam being 
passed tinder a swinging arm similar to ^3, and then carried T;o 
the thread guide I, from which it passes to the spool h. As the 
spool revolves, the yam is wound on it. The traverse of the 
yam on the spool is obtained by imparting an up-and-down 
motion to the rail m on which the thread gtiides I are secured. 
This motion is given to the traverse raU by means of the rods 
mi, motion being imparted to these rods by the rods ni2, which 
are connected to the arms n; these arms are acted on by a 
mangle gear / and quadrant «i. The bobbin boxes, in which 
the bobbins are kept, are shown at ^; g shows the creels on 
which the spools are placed as they become full. In cases where 
the yam to be spooled is wound on cops or bobbins with a filling 
wind, from which the yarn must be pulled off at the nose, the 
cops or bobbins are placed on spindles and the yam carried 
through the guides to the thread guide on the traverse rail and 
then to the spool. 

SIZES OF SPOOLS 



Counts 


Length of Traverse 
Inches 


Diameter of Head 
Inches 


8s to 16s 
18s to 34s 
36s to 54s 
56s to 80s 
90s to 100s 


6 
5 

41 
3^ 
3 


5 

4 
3f 
3i 
2f 



In spooling, the larger the spool can be made, the more yam 
it will hold, and consequently the greater wiU be the production 
of the spooler; but there is a limit to the size of the spool, due 
to the fact that at the next process the yam is obliged to turn 
the spool, and if too much tension is brought on it, it will break 
frequently and thus defeat the object of having a large spool. 
From this it will readily be apparent that the coarser the yam 
the larger will be the spool that can be used. Good sizes of 
spools for different counts of yam are as given in the accom- 
panying table. 



228 WARP PREPARATION 

Settings. — To set the mangle-gear arrangement shown in 
the illustration, have the pinion gear di just at the point of 
reversing the mangle gear /, then find the difference between 
the number of teeth on the segment wi, and on the stud gear // 
and set the stud gear so that it will be half this number of teeth 
away from the end of the segment. At this point the top of the 
traverse rail on one side of the spooler should be about rs in. 
below the top heads of the spools, and the top of the traverse 
rail on the other side should be the same distance above the 
bottom heads of the spools on that side of the machine. 

The gear /? meshing with the segment is known as the change 
gear, and it is this gear that is altered when a change in the 
traverse is desired. A larger gear drives the quadrant more 
quickly, and consequently makes it travel a greater distance 
while the mangle gear is making one revolution. This gives 
a longer traverse of the traverse rail. A smaller gear has, of 
course, th^ opposite effect. In case the change gear does not 
give the exact traverse required, any slight change may be 
obtained by moving the studs in the lever n, that support the 
rods nii. By this method of changing the traverse, the traverse 
on one side may be altered independently of that on the other, 
which cannot be done by changing the change gear. This, of 
course, is often of advantage. 

Another adjustment, but one that alters only the point at 
which the rail reverses without altering the traverse, can be 
made by dropping or raising the lifting rods. If, for example, 
the traverse rail is a little too high at both the top and bottom 
points at which it reverses, then the rods may be dropped until 
the traverse rail assumes its correct position. Care should be 
taken, however, to have the traverse rails perfectly horizontal 
and the .studs in the slots of the lever n all set at the same point 
on one side of the frame. 

The upper and lower plates of each thread guide should be set 
at such a distance apart that the yam will just pass through 
without chafing. It is a good plan to use a No. 7 or No. 9 card 
gauge to set these on fine yams and No. 11 on coarse yams, or 
even No. 7 and No. 9 together, equaling No. 16, on very coarse 
yams. The settings of these plates should be looked over 
frequently. 



WARP PREPARATION 



229 



Calculations. — To find the gear required to give a desired 
length of traverse when the gear being nin and the length of 
traverse it gives are known: 

PRODUCTION OF SPOOLERS 





Revolutions per Minute of 


Number of 


Cyl. 167, 


Cyl. 184, 


Cyl. 200, 


Yam 


Spindle 750 


Spindle 825 


Spindle 900 




Pounds per Day per Spindle 


8 


10.8 


11.8 


12.9 


10 


8.6 


9.5 


10.3 


12 


7.2 


7.9 


8.6 


14 


6.2 


6.8 


7.4 


16 


5.4 


5.9 


6.5 


18 


4.8 


5.3 


5.8 


20 


4.3 


4.8 


5.2 


22 


3.9 


4.3 


4.7 


24 


3.6 


4.0 


4.3 


' 26 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


28 


3.1 


3.4 


3.7 


30 


2.9 


3.2 


3.5 


32 


2.7 


3.0 


3.3 


34 


2.6 


2.8 


3.1 


36 


2.4 


2.7 


2.9 


; 38 


2.3 


2.5 


2.7 


40 


2.2 


2.4 


2.6 


44 


2.0 


2.2 


2.4 


50 


1.8 


1.9 


2.1 


60 


1.5 


1.6 


1.8 


70 


1.3 


1.4 


1.5 


80 


1.1 


1.2 


1.3 


90 


1.0 


1.1 


1.2 


100 


.9 


1.0 


1.1 



Rule. — Multiply the traverse gear being used by the length 
of traverse desired and divide the result by the length of the trav- 
erse being run. 

Example. — An 11-tooth gear is being used and gives a 
55-in. traverse. What gear will be required for a 4i-in. traverse? 



230 WARP PREPARATION 

11X4~ 
Solution. — ~ = 9-tooth gear. 

To find the length of traverse that a certain gear will give 
when the gear being used and the length of traverse it gives 
are known: 

Rule. — Multiply the length of traverse being run by the gear 
to be used and divide this result by the gear being used. 

Example. — ^An 11-tooth gear gives a 5|-in. traverse. What 

traverse will a 9-tooth gear give? 

5-X9 

Solution. — = 4|" traverse 

11 



BEAM WARPING 

As the yam comes from the spooler, it is taken to a machine 
known as a warper, the object of which is to unwind the yam 
from a large number of spools and place it in an even sheet on a 
beam, known as a section beam. Warping is divided into sev- 
eral different classes according to the manner in which the yam 
is treated. The operation known as beam warping derives its 
name from the fact that the yam as it is unwound from the 
spools is wound on a beam. 

The principle of beam warping is simple; it consists of 
arranging spools of yam in a creel so that they revolve with the 
least possible resistance, and the yam is wound on a roll, or 
beam, rotated by contact with a revolving cylinder. 

The accompanying illustration shows the creel and warper 
as they appear when in operation. The ends are gathered from 
the spools and passed between the guide rods c; they then pass 
through the expansion comb d, under a drop roll, over the guide 
roll/, through the drop wires g, through the expansion comb di, 
over the measuring roll h, and then to the beam k, on which they 
are wovmd in an even sheet. 

The first important part of the warper with which the yam 
comes into contact as it passes from the creel is the expansion 
comb d, which is arranged so that the spaces between the wire 
teeth may be enlarged or reduced, and the gauge of the comb 
regulated to imiformly distribute the sheet of yam over the 



WARP PREPARATION 



231 



whole width of the machine, irrespective of the number of ends 
being run. Passing from the expansion comb, the yam comes 




into contact with a drop roll, which takes up any slack yam 
that may be let oflE by the spools. When the warper-is stopped 



232 WARP PREPARATION 

for any cause, the momentum of the spools causes considerable 
yarn to be unwound,- which, if not taken care of in some man- 
ner, may become snarled and break when the warper is again 
started. 

As the principal object of a warper is to wind on a beam an 
even sheet of yam that consists of the same number of ends at 
all times, all modern warpers are supplied with slop-motions, 
which stop the machine if a single end breaks while passing from 
the creel to the beam. The yarn, after passing through the drop 
wires of the stop-motion, next passes through the expansion 
comb dx and then over the measuring roll h, which is driven by 
the friction of the yarn. Connected with this roll is a device 
for measuring the yam wound on the beam. 

Attachments are provided on all warpers by means of which 
they may be run at two speeds. In starting a warper, the belt 
is shifted to the slow-motion pulley, and the yarn immediately 
begins to wind on the beam, gradually pulling up the drop roll 
as the tension of the yam cotuiteracts the weight of the roll. 
As soon as the roll has resumed the position that it should 
occupy while the warper is ninning, and after the spools have 
acquired some momentum, the belt is moved to the tight pulley, 
and the machine will run at full speed. 

A cone-drive attachment is provided on some warpers by 
means of which the beam may be driven at a slower speed as the 
spools become nearly empty. The advantage of such an 
arrangement is clearly seen, for a spool filled with yam is larger 
in diameter than an empty spool; consequently, if the same 
length of yam is being unwound from each in the same time, the 
spool that is nearly empty must make more revolutions per 
minute than the other, which is undesirable. In addition, as 
the diameter of the spool decreases the amount of pull necessary 
to turn it is increased, which naturally brings more strain on the 
yarn. If, therefore, the same length of yarn is to be unwound 
from the spools at all times this length cannot exceed what the 
yam will stand when being unwound from the nearly empty 
spools; consequently, when the spools are full, the warper is not 
run at its full capacity. 

The aim in warping should be to produce hard and level 
beams, free from ridges or soft sides near the beam head. The 









WARP PREPARATION 



233^ 



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234 WARP PREPARATION 

existence of ridges indicates a wrong division of the ends in the 
comb, and soft sides show that the comb has not been adjusted 
to suit the width of the beam. All knots that are made during 
the filling of the beam should be made as small as possible in 
order to facilitate the weaving process. 

The actual production of warpers should be estimated at 
from 65 to 75% of the production figured on the basis that the 
machines are ran constantly, as warpers are stopped from If 
to 2 hr. for creeling after each set of spools has been run off. 
The production is usually figured at 70 yd. per min. for 20s; 60 
yd. per m"n. for 40s; 50 yd. per min. for 60s; 45 yd. per min. 
for 80s ; and 40 yd. per min. for 100s. This estimate will vary in 
different mills, according to the speed of the machines, the 
quality of the yam, and the niimber of warpers being run by 
each tender. 

The accompanying table gives the production per week of 
60 hr. for yams from 8s to 50s, the niimber of ends on the beam 
varying from 260 to 440 and the speed of the warper being 
about 54 yd. per min. The production with other speeds can 
easily be figured by proportion. This table provides for an 
allowance of 33|% lost time for stoppages. 



SLASHING 

The machine that treats the warp yam as it comes from the 
beam warper is known as a slasher; its objects are as follows: 
(1) To coat each thread of warp yam evenly with an adhesive, 
strengthening compound known as size in such a manner that 
the size will partly penetrate and adhere to the thread without 
the threads adhering to one another; (2) to dry the sheet of 
warp after it has been sized; (3) to run the desired number 
of threads on a loom beam in an even sheet and in such a 
manner that the sheet will unwind at the loom without obstruc- 
tion and pass through the harnesses and reed without unnec- 
essary breakage and with the least trouble to the weaver. 

Fig. 1 shows a sectional view of a two-cylinder slasher, 
through which the passage of the yam is as follows: The 
required number of section beams ai, ai, az, Oi, cs, fle are placed 
in the creel a and the ends from these beams passed over the 



WARP PREPARATION 



235 



guide rolls b, bi. The yam then 
passes through the size box c, 
which contains the size ci, being 
guided under the immersion 
roll C2, between the size roll d 
and squeeze roll e, and then 
between the size roll dj, and 
squeeze roll ei. From the size 
box it passes to the steam-heated 
cylinders h,j, but in order to 
keep it under the influence of 
these drying cylinders as long 
as possible it is carried in a cir- 
cuitous path, first to the large 
cylinder h, a,nd then to the small 
cylinder i, passing partly around 
both. About 50 ft. of warp is 
under the influence of the dry- 
ing arrangement at one time. 
From the cylinder j the yam 
passes under the fan k and 
around guide rolls 62, bs, bi. 

The method of sizing and dry- 
ing the warp tends to cause the 
individual threads to stick to- 
gether; consequently, to remedy 
this, split rods, also known as 
separating bars, m, mi, wi2, mz, 
rm, are introduced to divide the 
warp horizontally into as many 
sheets as there are section beams 
in the creel. The warp next 
passes through the expansion 
comb n, over and under tension 
rods fee, h, around the measur- 
ing roll p, the drag roll r and 
guide roll n, from which it passes 
to the loom beam s, on which it 
is wound in an even sheet. 




236 WARP PREPARATION 

When the slasher is in operation, the size box is partly filled 
with size ci, and the immersion roll C2 placed in such a position 
that the yam in passing partly around it passes through the 
size, becomes coated with it, and to a certain extent absorbs 
the mixture in excess of the requirements. The excess of size 
is pressed out as the yam passes between the two sets of rolls 
d, e and di, ei, and flows back into the box. 

The squeeze rolls e, ei, are first covered with three or four 
layers of ordinary cotton sheeting, which is either glued on or 
thickly coated with white paint, the paint preventing the size 
from striking through and reaching the roU. One of the chief 
objects of the squeeze rolls is to cause the size to penetrate the 
yam, and in order to accomplish this there is placed outside of 
the cotton cloth covering a woolen blanket especially made 
for this purpose and technically known as slasher cloth. For 
the rear roll from 3J to 4 yd. of 16-oz. cloth and for the front 
roll from 4 to 5 yd. of 12-oz. cloth will be found to give good 
satisfaction. In placing the cloth on the rolls, care should be 
taken to have the laps follow on the outside, so that they will 
not be roughed up. It is hardly necessary to fasten the dloth 
in any manner, as the size will soon stick the laps together, but 
should any part of the outer edge of the cloth become folded, 
thus causing a bunch on the roll, it may be laid smooth by 
passing the end from a bobbin of yam around the roll a number 
of times. Slasher cloth, through being in constant contact 
with the size, soon becomes stiff and unpliable; to remedy this 
it should frequently be taken off and soaked in water. 

The cylinders h, j are made of rolled copper except the heads, 
which are of steel plate. These heads should be well stayed 
with iron rods. The cylinders should be kept hot enough to 
dry the yam satisfactorily, but not so hot as to make it brittle. 
Pressure of steam practically regulates this, as a higher pres- 
sure of steam means a higher temperature. Better work can 
be done with a machine panning slowly, and the cylinders at 
a moderate temperature than by having a high temperature 
and running the yam through very quickly. Yam should 
never be run on the beam unless perfectly dry. If damp it 
terids to mildew and rot, making bad weaving and spoiling 
the goods. The pressure of steam used in the cylinders varies 



WARP PREPARATION 237 

from 4 to 15 lb. A high pressure of steam is used when coarse 
yarn is being slashed; when a large percentage of size is applied; 
for a warp with a large number of ends; and when a slasher is 
being run at a high speed, even with a medium number of yarn or 
a medium sheet. Low pressure is used for fine yams, thin sheets, 
or slow-running machines. About 8 lb. is the usual pressure. 

Calculations. — 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 2, find the speed of the drag 

roll if the driving shaft makes 250 rev. per min. and the 

change gear has 36 teeth. 

250X36 

Solution. — =85.714 rev. per min. 

105 

Example. — Find the number of yards slashed per minute 

if the drag roll makes 85.714 rev. per min. 

85.714X6X3.1416 

Solution. — = 44.879 yd. 

3X12 

Example. — Find the speed of the size rolls when the driving 

shaft makes 250 rev. per min. and the change gear has 36 teeth. 

250X36X20X32 

Solution. — =57.142 rev. per min. 

105X30X32 

Example. — Find the number of yards per minute that pass 

the size rolls when they make 57.142 rev. per min. 

57.142X9X3.1416 

Solution. — = 44.879 yd. 

3X12 

It will be noticed from the above calculations that the 
amount of yarn taken up by the drag roll exactly equals 
the amount passed forwards by the size rolls- This, of course, 
is necessary in order to keep the yam at the proper tension 
between these two points. 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 2, find the speed of the fan k 

when the driving shaft makes 250 rev. per min. 

250X15 

Solution. — =1,000 rev. per min. 

3.75 

Example. — ^Referring to Fig. 2, find the speed of the driving 

shaft when the belt is on the slow-motion ptilley, if this ptilley 

is driven 250 rev. per min. 

250X20X16 , 

Solution. — = 14.232 rev. per mm. 

73X77 



238 



WARP PREPARATION 




1 


•«" 




i 


•s , 






I 



WARP PREPARATION 



239 




240 WARP PREPARATION 

From the preceding calculation it will be seen that the slow- 
motion arrangement makes a very appreciable difEerence ini 
the speed of the machine. 

Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, find the length of yarn that 

passes the measuring roll between successive cut marks. 

45^X3.1416X100X45 ^^^^^ ^ 

Solution.— ■ =39.815 yd. 

12X3X45X1 

Example. — Considering the 45-tooth gear on the end of the 

measuring roll to be the change gear, find the constant for the 

measuring motion. 

4AX3.1416X 100X45 ^ „„^ _„ 

Solution. — = 1,791.693, constant 

12X3X1 

Note. — The constant for the measuring motion in this 
slasher is usually considered as 1,800, and will be so considered 
in these calculations. 

ExAiiPLE. — If the constant for the measuring motion is 
1,800, what change gear will be required to give 64-yard cuts? 

Solution. — 1,800-^64 = 28.125; a 28 gear would be used 

Example; — If the constant for the measuring motion is 
1,800, what length of cut will a 35 change gear give? 

Solution.— 1,800-^35 = 51.428 yd. 

Production. — In connection with any calculations dealing 
with the production of a slasher, it should be understood that 
a certain percentage must be deducted from the calculated 
production in order to make allowance for stoppages due to 
such causes as changing the loom beams or changing the sets 
at the back of the slasher. This allowance will, of course, 
vary with different classes of yam, but for ordinary work, 
such as plain white warps, about 35 % will be found to be a fair 
allowance. The slasher is a machine of large production and 
in all ordinary cases it is customary to estimate that one slasher 
will prepare warps for 500 looms. 

Size. — The requirements of a good size mixing are good 
adhesive qualities, good color, imiform consistency, and the 
property of leaving the yam smooth, tenacious, and pliable, 
even when heavily sized. 

Sizing materials may be divided into five classes: (a) 
starches, or the adhesive substances, forming the body of the 



WARP FREPARATIGN 241 

mixing; (b) softening substances, used to avoid harshness in 
the dried warp and preserve the softness and pliability of the 
yarn; (c) weighting substances, used in medium and heavy 
sizing to add the weight that the adhesive substances cannot 
give; (d) antiseptics, or substances that tend to destroy micro- 
organisms and vegetable life, and thus prevent the growth of 
mildew or the decomposition of the size; (e) miscellaneous 
ingredients, used for coloring and other purposes. 

Considering the first group of substances, the principal 
ingredients are com starch, potato starch (sometimes called 
farina), wheat flour, sago flour, or rice flour. In the United 
States, com starch and potato starch are the principal adhesive 
substances used, some mill men preferring one, some another. 
Either is convenient for use in light sizing, but each requires 
a softener to counteract the harshness that it gives to the warp 
when used alone. Wheat flour is very largely used in heavy 
sizing, as it is more glutinous and fixes weighting substances on 
the yam better than any other material; it also does not tend 
to make the warp as harsh as starches of other grains ; on the 
other hand, it has a tendency toward mildew and does not give 
as bright a color to the warp as some of the other materials. 

Perhaps the most useful material for a softener is tallow, 
beef or mutton tallows being the principal ones used for this 
purpose. The various kinds of wax are also useful ; for example, 
Japanese wax, a vegetable product that is a light, hard substance 
of a slightly yellow color, and paraffin wax, which is a clear and 
semitransparent product obtained in the manufacture of min- 
eral oils. A high melting point of wax used for sizing is desir- 
able, 110° F. being a suitable standard. Other softeners some- 
times used are glycerine, castor oil, palm oil, and soap. Many 
softeners are sold under a patented name used as a trade mark. 

Weight-giving substances are not much used in American 
mills; of those used china clay, sometimes called kaolin, is 
perhaps the most valuable. Among other substances some- 
times, but not often, used for weighting are sulphate of lime,, 
sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of baryta. 
Chloride of magnesium (which is often called antiseptic, though 
it possesses no antiseptic properties) and other metallic salts 
are also sometimes used. 



242 WARP PREPARATION 

Antiseptics are substances that tend to destroy vegetable 
life and micro-organisms and thus prevent the decomposition 
of the size or the growth of mildew. The antiseptic substance 
that is most largely used in size mixing is known as muriate, 
or chloride, of zinc. This is also valuable as a weight-giving 
substance, for since it is a metallic salt, really consisting of zinc 
dissolved in muriatic acid, it has a high specific gravity. 
Another antiseptic is carbolic acid, but this is not so largely 
used as the muriate of zinc. 

Among the miscellaneous substances used for tinting the 
size in case it is desired to imitate piece goods or to produce 
v.'hat are known as shot effects are aniline dyes of various colors. 
For tinted warps, a blue dye is sometimes used in very small pro- 
portions for the purpose of correcting a tendency to yellowness 
in the size mixing; the blue dye changes it to a bluish white. 

Sometimes soda is used with the idea of preventing iron 
stains. Turpentine is often used in small quantities to cut 
the softening materials and cause a proper blending of the 
constituents of the mixture; from 1 gi. to 1 pt. per 100 gal. of 
water is sufficient. It is found to be especially useful in sizing 
Egyptian cotton yam, which carries a wax or fatty matter on its 
surface in sufficient quantities to repel the application of liquid 
size. 

In considering a size mixing, the proportion of each of the 
five classes of sizing materials should be considered with rela- 
tion to the quantity of water used. Also, the following points 
should be considered: Ply warp yam can be woven with very 
little size, in some cases even without size. Single warp yam 
of medium counts in a cloth of light sley and pick can be woven 
with a minimum of size. A warp that must be woven in a fine 
reed, or in other words, one that contains a large number of ends 
per inch, requires a strong size. The same applies to a cloth 
with a heavy pick, that is, a large number of picks per inch. 
A warp of fine, hard-twisted yam, especially Egyptian yam, 
requires a stronger mixing than a medium yam, as it has not the 
same tendency to absorb size as a yam of medium counts spun 
from American cotton. A very coarse warp, being loosely 
twisted, tends to fray in the loom more easily than a yam of 
medium counts and twist, and thus requires a stronger size. 



WARP PREPARATION 



243 



The following fundamental principles govern all cases: (o) 
A size mixing is weakest and is applied with the smallest per- 
centage for medium yams, say from number 20s to 40s, and for 
a cloth of light sley and pick; (&) if the cloth is woven with a 
heavy sley and pick, even with the same numbers, the mixing 
must be made stronger; (c) if the yam is very fine, the mixing 
must also be made stronger; (J) if the yam is very coarse but 
very light-twisted, the mixing must be made stronger. 

The accompanying table gives approximately the weights 
of starch and softening materials that ought to be used to 
each 100 gal. of water on various num.bers of warps from 10s 
to 100s for pure sizing only, that is, when the yam is sized only 
for the purpose of enhancing its weaving qualities. 

WEIGHT OF SIZING MATERIALS 





Light Sley 


Medium Sley 


Heavy Sley 




and Pick 


and Pick 


and Pick 


Counts of 
Yarn 










Soften- 




Soften- 




Soften- 




Starch 


mg 


Starch 


mg 


Starch 


ing 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


10s to 25s 


40 


5 


45 


6 


50 


6 


253 to 30s 


30 


4 


35 


5 


40 


5 


SOsto 403 


35 


4 


40 


5 


50 


6 


40s to 60s 


45 


5 


50 


5 


65 


7 


eusto 803 


50 


6 


65 


7 


SO 


10 


SOs to lOQs 


65 


7 


80 


10 


90 


12 



To each of the mixings given in the table, other ingredients 
may be added for special purposes; for example, turpentine, 
not more than 1 qt. and often only 1 gi. to 100 gal. of water; 
aniline blue, from j to | oz. to 100 gal. of water; alum, not 
more than 4 lb. to 100 gal. of water; dextrine, about 2 
lb. to 100 gal.; soap, about 1 lb. to 100 gal.; blue vitriol, not 
more than 1 gi. to 100 gal. Only the turpentine and the 
aniline blue are of much use, and then only in special cases. 

Vi/'hen considering the question of sizing for the purpose of 
adding weight to the fabric, the same remarks as to varying 



244 WARP PREPARATION 

the proportions of the ingredients according to the numbers of 
yams and the sley and pick hold good, but in this case the 
mixing must be made considerably stronger, not only by the 
addition of a larger proportion of starch materials, which 
necessitates a larger proportion of softening materials, but in 
some cases by the addition of weight-giving materials. The 
following mixings are given as examples of medium and heavy 
sizing: To apply 50% to the warp, that is, J lb. of size for 
each potind of warp yarn: Water, 100 gal.; wheat flour, 320 
lb.; china clay, 150 lb.; tallow, 40 lb.; chloride of magnesium, 
3 gal.; muriate of zinc, 1 gal.; soda, 5 lb. 

For heavy size, say 100%, that is, 1 lb. of size for each pound 
of warp yam: Water, 100 gal.; wheat flour, 560 lb.; china 
clay, 560 lb.; tallow, 130 lb.; chloride of magnesium, 20 gal.; 
muriate of zinc, 10 gal.; soda, 10 lb.; aniline blue, | oz. 

For a mixing that will give from 150 to 200% on the warp the 
following materials shotdd be used: Wheat flour, 560 lb.; 
china clay, 1,600 lb.; tallow, 1,600 lb.; soap, 20 lb.; soda, 30 
lb.; chloride of magnesium, 40 gal.; muriate of zinc, 20 gal.; 
aniUne blue, f oz. In this latter case barely sufficient water to 
liquefy the mixture would be used. The water in which the 
floiu: has been steeped, together with the chloride of magnesium 
and the muriate of zinc, probably would not exceed 100 gal. in 
all. 

In making a heavy size mixing, a different method is employed 
than in making pure size mixing. The wheat flour is some- 
times steeped alone for 3 wk., at the end of which time the 
muriate of zinc is added to it, together with the soda, and the 
mixture heated. The clay, tallow, and other ingredients are 
mixed separately in the size kettle and boiled, after which the 
two compounds are mixed together and boUed. 



COTTON WEAVING 245 



COTTON WEAVING 



PLAIN LOOMS 

The principle on which looms are constructed is that of 
manipulating two series of yams — the warp and the filling — so 
that the warp will be slowly drawn through the loom and inter- 
laced with the filling to form a fabric. In order to make cloth, 
some of the warp threads must be raised and others lowered 
to produce the space through which the filling, which is carried 
by a shuttle, can be passed. This space is called a shed, and 
through it the filling is thrown from side to side, the operation 
being known as picking. The shuttle leaves the filling some 
distance from the edge, or feU, of the cloth. It is therefore 
necessary to push it forwards to the cloth, that is, to the picks 
that have previously been put in and that help to form the 
fabric. This process is known as beating up and completes the 
round of fundamental operations necessary to produce cloth. 

Looms, in addition to performing the essential operations of 
shedding, picking, and beating up, have certain other move- 
ments in order to render their operation more automatic. For 
example, take-up motions are applied to draw the cloth forv»'ards 
after it has been woven; let-off motions are used to release the 
warp at the desired rate of speed; autom,atic stop-m.otions are 
provided to cause the loom to cease operating when the filling 
breaks, and in some cases when an end of the warp breaks; 
temples are provided to extend the cloth sidewise; all of these 
attachments are found on a plain loom. 

Shedding by Cams. — The shedding mechanism of a plain 
loom is shown in Fig. 1. The manner In which the cams s, si 
cause the rise and fall of the harnesses q, qi should be considered. 
Each cam moves the harness, which it actuates, in one direction 
only, straps and roller connections being necessary to bring the 
harness back to its original position. Thus, when the cam- 
shaft t revolves so that the cam si is in the position shown in 
this figure, the harness q will be lowered by the direct action of 
this cam, forcing down the treadle p. The raising of the harness 



246 



COTTON WEAVING 



q is accomplished by means of the strap-and-roUer connections. 
As the cam s revolves, it forces down the treadle pi, which in 
turn lowers the harness fii. As this harness is lowered it turns 




the rollers qs. The revolving of the rollers winds up the top 
strap connected to q, which raises that harness. Thus the 
downward motion of the harness qi produces an upward motion 
of the harness q, and, consequently, as one harness is depressed. 



\ COTTON WEAVING 2A7 

to allow the yarn drawn through it to form the bottom of the 
shed, the other harness is raised in order to form the top of the 
shed. The warp yarn is drawn through eyes in cotton har- 
nesses or in wire heddles supported by the harness frames and 
since one harness is down while the other is up, a diamond- 
shaped opening is made in the warp, through which the shuttle, 
carrying the filling, is thrown. 

The difference in the diameters of the rolls qz is required in 
order to compensate for the extra rise that -must be given to the 
back harness so that the yam drawn through it will rise to the 
same height as the yarn in the front harness. This would be 
more noticeable if several harnesses were employed. For the 
same reason the cam that actuates the back harness should 
always be larger than the one that actuates the front. 

The ideal movement that can be given to a harness is to 
commence to lift or depress slowly, gradually increasing in 
speed to the center of the shed, when the movement again 
gradually becomes slower until the shed is formed. 

The treadles of a loom maybe considered as levers of the 
third class, since they have their fulcrum on a bracket bolted 
to the back girt of the loom, the weight being applied at the 
point where the harnesses are connected and the power exerted 
between these two. If the length of the treadle and the length 
from stud or fulcrum to point of contact with the cam are 
known, the throw of the cam necessary to give the desired size 
of shed is easily obtained. 

Rule. — To obtain the desired throw of cam, multiply the size 
of shed required by the length of the treadle from the stud or fulcrum 
to the point of contact, and divide this result by the whole length of 
the treadle. 

Example. — The length of treadle is 30 in., distance from 
stud to contact 18 in. , and the shed required 3 in. ; what should 
be the throw of the cam? 

Solution. — ^According to the rule: 18X3 = 54. Dividing by 
the length of the treadle, 54^30 = 1.8 in., the throv/ of the cam. 

Picking. — ^After the harnesses have been opened and a shed 
formed, the shuttle that contains the filling must be thrown 
from one side of the loom to the other, passing through this 
opening and leaving a pick of filling. This action of the loom 



248 



COTTON WEAVING 



Is known as picking. There are several styles of picking 
motions in general use on power looms at the present time. 
In America, the two principal ones are the shoe, or bat-wing, 
pick, and the cone pick, but the cone pick is in general use 

on plain cotton looms. 
The action of the pick- 
ing motion, as shown 
in Fig. 2, is as follows: 
As the projecting part, 
or nose, of the cam c in 
revolving on the cam- 
shaft t strikes the cone 
ei, it forces it upwards. 
This, in turn, throws 
the bottom of the arm es 
inwards, which move- 
ment draws the picker 
stick d toward the loom 
by means of connections 
consisting of a lug stick 
di and lug strap d-z. 
The picker stick, by 
means of the force with 
which it is drawn in and 
throiigh the picker di, 
delivers a blow to the 
shuttle sufficient to 
send it across the loom 
and into the opposite 
box. A mechanism of exactly the same construction will then 
throw the shuttle back again across the loom. 

The object of the parallel motion, which consists of the shoe 
j2, rocker js, etc., is to move the picker in a direction as nearly 
as possible parallel to the race plate on which the shuttle travels 
across the loom. Without some such arrangement, the picker 
in traveling from one end of the box to the other would describe 
an arc of a circle. This would give it a higher position at one 
part of its movement than at another, thereby resulting in a 
very unsatisfactory pick. 




COTTON WEAVING 



249 



sd 



The shoe of the parallel motion is perfectly level, and the 
rocker to which the picker stick is fastened is curved. This 
curve of the rocker is such that it forms the arc of a circle that 
would be drawn by using the picker as a center, and a radius 
equal to the distance from the picker to the shoe of the parallel 
motion. Thus, it will be seen that as the picker stick moves 
forwards and backwards, its fulcram being at the rocker, the 
upper end, or the picker, will be at the same level when at the 
back of the box as at any other point. 

Beating Up. — ^After the filling has been laid in the cloth by 
the shuttle it must be forced up to the cloth previously woven; 
this operation is known as beat- 
ing up and is performed by the 
lay of the loom, in which is 
placed the reed, a grate-like 
device that divides and evenly 
spreads the warp threads. 

The lay consists of a heavy 
piece of wood extending from 
the outside end of one shuttle 
box to the outside end of the 
opposite box. This is supported 
by pivoted arms, termed lay 
swords, and is given a swinging 
motion by means of cranks on 
the crank-shaft of the loom. 



\ 



4 



y 



Fig. 3 

The lay serves two purposes: first, it beats up the filling, and, 
second, it acts as a rest on which the shuttle may slide in passing 
from one box to the other. . 

Eccentricity of Lay. — In Fig. 3, ah represents the position 
of the lay and lay sword when at their forward throw, and ac, 
when at their backward throw; d represents the circle described 
by the crank in revolving. 

When the lay is at its forward throw, the crank must be at 
its front center, which is /. This gives the length of the pitman 
arm, which is bf. If the center g of the throw of the lay is 
taken as a center, and an arc described with a radius equal to 
the length of the pitman arm, it will cut the circle of the crank 
at 1 and 2. Therefore, while the lay is moving from g to & and 



250 COTTON WEAVING 

back to g again, which is half a stroke, the crank moves from 
;2 through /to 1. 

On the other hand, while the lay is moving from g to c and 
back to g again, which also is half a stroke, the crank is moving 
from 1 through e to 2. But it will be noticed that the arc 2fl 
is smaller than the arc le2, and since the crank revolves at the 
same rate of speed, the shorter distance must be traveled in a 
shorter time. Therefore, the lay in moving through its forward 
stroke, or from g to & and back to g, will travel faster than while 
accomplishing its backward stroke, or from g to c and back to g. 
This is known as the eccentricity of the lay, and the amount of 
this eccentricity is indirectly proportional to the length of the 
pitm-an arm, and directly proportional to the diameter of the 
circle described by the crank. The larger the circle and the 
shorter the pitman arm, the greater will be the eccentricity. 

Two or three other important points connected with the 
eccentricity of the lay should be carefully noted. It is essential 
that this eccentricity should be great enough to allow the shuttle 
time to pass from one box to the other; on the other hand, if 
the throw of the crank should be increased, the distance through 
which the lay moves would be increased proportionately. This 
would produce a greater chafing of the warp yams, which 
should be avoided as much as possible. The method adopted 
by loom builders to overcome this difficulty is to place the 
crank-shaft in a lower plane than the point where the crank-arm 
is connected with the lay. By increasing the diameter of the 
circle described by the crank in proportion to the length of the 
crank-arm, the requisite amount of eccentricity is obtained, 
and at the same time the crank is taken out of the way of the 
warp. 

Calculations. — The picks per inch that are inserted in the 
cloth depend on the rate at which the sand roll is driven for- 
wards, taking up the cloth as it is woven. To determine the 
driving and driven gears of the take-up motion, always com- 
mence with the sand roll, which in all cases is considered as a 
driver. 

In obtaining the change gear for a take-up motion, a certain 
percentage is generally taken from the actual measurement of 
the sand roll to allow for any contraction that takes place in the 



COTTON WEAVING 251 

length of the cloth after it is taken from the loom. About 2 % will 
cover all cases, although different builders allow different rates. 

In figuring the change gear for a loom, it is always neces- 
sary to notice what part of the loom is working the pawl that 
drives the ratchet wheel. The cam-shaft revolves only once 
while two picks are being placed in the cloth; consequently, if 
the take-up motion is driven from the cam-shaft, it will operate 
but once in two picks. On this accoiont, it is necessary when 
figuring change gears that are driven from the cam-shaft, to 
rQultiply the number of teeth in the ratchet wheel by 2. 

When the take-up motion is driven by any part of the loom 
that operates every pick, such as the lay sword, the ratchet 
wheel is figured with its exact number of teeth. 

To find the change gear to give the ntimber of picks required 
when it is a driver, apply the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the driven gears together, and divide by the drivers, 
circumference in inches of sand roll, and picks per inch required. 

Example. — Find the change gear necessary to give 64 picks 
per inch witli. the take-up motion shown in Fig. 4, considering 
gi as the change gear. 

Solution. — The ratchet gear gi is driven from the cam- 
shaft and, consequently, will be considered as a gear of double 
the number of teeth that it actually contains. Deducting 2% 
from the circumference of the sand roll gives 14.21 as the cir- 
cumference to be used when figuring for the change gear. The 
change gear gi is a driver; therefore, 

48X27X200 

= 18-tooth change gear 

14.21X16X64 

To find the change gear when it is a driven gear, apply the 
following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the driving gears, circumference in inches 
of sand roll, and picks required together, and divide the result by 
the driven gears. 

Example. — Find the change gear necessary to give 56 picks 
with the take-up motion illustrated in Fig. 4, considering the 
gear gz as the change gear. 

Solution. — The change gear gs is a driven gear; therefore 

16X16X14.21X56 

= 21-tooth gear necessary 

48X200 



252 



COTTON WEAVING 



To find the constant of a take-up motion, apply the fol- 
lowing rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the driven gears together, and divide by the 
drivers and circumference in inches of sand roll, leaving change 
gear and picks per inch out of the calculation. 

When the change gear is a driver, the constant will he divided 
by the picks per inch to obtain the change gear. 

When the change gear is a driven, the picks per inch required 
will be divided by the constant, in order to obtain the change gear. 




100 = 



Fig. 4 



Example. — Find the constant for the take-up motion illus- 
trated in Fig. 4, considering the gear gs as the change gear. 

48X200 

Solution. — = 2.639, constant 

14.21X16X16 

To find the production of a loom apply the following rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the number of picks per minute of the loom 
by the number of minutes in 1 hr. and by the nwnber of hours, 
and divide by the number of picks per inch being inserted in the 
cloth, and then by the number of inches in a yard. Deduct from 
this an allowance for stoppages. 

The allowance for stoppages varies according to the class 
of goods being woven, but it is usually assumed that 10% is 
sufficient on ordinary plain cloth. 

Example. — A loom runs 180 picks per min., 48 hr. per week, 
and the cloth contains 64 picks per in. The loom runs 90% 
of the possible time. Find the number of yards produced in 
a week. 



COTTON WEAVING 



253 



Solution. — 180 picks per min. X 60 (min. in hr.) = 10,800 
picks per hr. 10,800 picks X 48 (hr. per wk.) =518,400 picks 
per wk. 

518,400 -^ 64 (picks per in.) =8,100 in. per wk. 
8,100^36 (in. in 1 yd.) = 225 yd. per wk. 
90% of 225 = 202.5 yd. 

Short Method of Finding Production of Looms. — A short 
method of finding the production of looms makes use of a 
table of previously-calculated constants and the following 
rule: 

Rule. — Multiply the speed of the loom by the constant given in 
the accompanying table and divide by picks per inch in the fabric. 

CONSTANTS FOR FINDING LOOM PRODUCTION 







Percentages 


of Theoretical Production 




Hr. 














100% 


95% 


90% 


85% 


80% 


75% 


70% 


65% 


60% 


70 


116.7 


110.8 


105 


99 


93.3 


87.5 


81.7 


75.8 


70 


66 


110 


104.5 


99 


93.5 


88 


82.5 


77 


71.5 


66 


62 


103.3 


98.1 


93 


87.S 


82.6 


77.5 


72.3 


67.1 


62 


60 


100 


95 


90 


85 


80 


75 


70 


65 


60 


58 


96.7 


91.9 


87 


82,2 


77.4 


72.5 


67.7 


62.8 


5S 


56 


93.3 


88.6 


84 


79.3 


74.6 


70 


65.3 


60.6 


56 


54 


90 


85.5 


81 


76.5 


72 


67.5 


63 


58.5 


54 


52 


86.7 


82.4 


78 


73.7 


69.3 


65 


61 


56.3 


52 


50 


83.3 


79.1 


75 


70.8 


66.6 


62.5 


58.3 


54.1 


50 


48 


80 


76 


72 


68 


64 


60 


56 


52 


48 


46 


76.7 


72.8 


69 


65.2 


61.3 


57.5 


53.7 


49.8 


46 


44 


73.3 


69.7 


66 


62.3 


58.7 


55 


51.3 


47.7 


44 


42 


70 


66.5 


63 


59.5 


56 


52.5 


49 


45.5 


42 


40 


66.7 


63.3 


60 


56.7 


53.3 


50 


46.7 


43.3 


40 



Example. — Same as the preceding example. 
Solution. — 

180 (picks per min.) X 72 (constant) 



64 (picks per in.) 



= 202.5 yd. 



254 



COTTON WEAVING 



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COTTON WEAVING 



255 



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256 COTTON WEAVING 

CAM LOOMS 

Although the plain loom is a cam loom, this term is applied 
more particularly to looms employing cams on three-, four-, 
five-, and six-harness work for the production of twills, sateens, 
etc. When cams are employed on three-, four-, five-, or six- 
harness work and it is necessary for each cam to make only one 
revolution during the time that the loom is making three, four, 
five, or six picks, it is not possible to operate these cams on the 
cam-shaft of the loom, which makes one complete revolution 
during every two picks; therefore, a properly-geared auxiliary 
shaft must be einployed for the harness-cams. 

A rule for finding the required size of gears on cam-shafts 
when driving a-uxiliary shafts may be stated as follows: 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in the gear on the aux- 
iliary shaft by two and divide by the number of picks to the round. 

Example. — ^What must be the gear of the cam-shaft on five- 
harness work, if the auxiliary shaft has a 60-tooth gear? 

Solution. — ^Applying the rule just stated, 
60X2 = 120 
120-^-5 = 24-tooth gear 

To set the cams on work that contains more than two harnesses, 
turn the crank-shaft until it is on its bottom center; then turn 
the cams on the auxiliary shaft until the harnesses that are 
changing are level. 

Selvage Motions. — ^When cloth is being woven in which the 
ends change only once in three or more picks some arrangement, 
in addition to the harnesses, must be used in order to produce 
a selvage, since it is necessary for the ends that form the sel- 
vage to change every time the filling is thrown across in order 
to catch and hold the filling. When the ends interlace fre- 
quently with the filling, the plain selvage motion may be used. 

When cloth is being woven in which the filling does not 
interlace with each end more than once in five picks, as is the 
case with a five-harness satin, some other arrangement must 
be used, since if the warp ends are interlacing with the filling 
only once in five picks and the selvage ends are interlacing at 
every pick, owing to the contraction being so much greater on 
the selvage ends by reason of their more frequent interlacings 



COTTON WEAVING 257 

with the filling, the selvage ends will become so much 
tighter than the warp ends for the body of the cloth that 
it will be impossible to weave them. To overcome this 
difficulty a tape selvage motion is used. With this motion 
two picks of filling are placed in one shed of the selvage; 
consequently the selvage ends interlace only once every 
two picks, yet the selvage will change each time the 
shuttle is on the side with that selvage; that is, the two 
selvages change independently of each other, the selvage 
on one side changing one pick and the selvage on the 
other side changing the next. 

To set the selvage cams on such a motion proceed as 
follows: With the crank-shaft on the bottom center, set 
the cams that are on the same side as the shuttle in such 
a position that the selvage harnesses on that side will be 
level at that point. Turn the crank-shaft one complete 
revolution; with the shuttle in the opposite box and the 
crank-shaft on the bottom center, set the two remaining 
cams so that the selvage harnesses operated by these 
cams will be level or just passing each other at this point. 



LOOM FIXING 

Size of Shed. — When regulating the size of the shed, 
have the shed large enough to clear the shuttle, by, say, 
about g in. In some cases, however, when the work is 
light, it will be found to be an advantage to reduce the 
size of the shed, the chafing due to the shuttle rubbing 
against the yarn being more than compensated for by the 
fact that less strain will be placed on the yarn, due to 
the harnesses not lifting so high. 

The size of the shed may be regulated, within certain 
limits, by changing the point at which the jack strap is 
connected to the treadle, since the farther this point is 
from the fulcrum of the treadle, the greater is the dis- 
tance through which the harness v/ill be moved and the 
greater will be the size of the shed. 



258 COTTON WEAVING 

Timing the Shedding. — ^When timing the harness cams for 
ordinary work, turn the crank-shaft until it is on its bottom 
center; theil turn the harness cams on the cam-shaft until the 
treadles and harnesses are exactly level. Fasten the cams 
when the loom is in this position. This will bring the harnesses 
level wheil the reed is about 2i in. from the fell of the cloth. 
If the harness cam.s are set so that the harnesses will be level 
before the reed reaches this point, that is, before the crank- 
shaft reaches its bottom center, the harnesses are said to be 
set early and the warp yam will be subjected to additional 
strain, and chafing; on the other hand, if the harnesses do not 
become level until the crank-shaft has passed its bottom center, 
the harnesses are said to be set late, and there wiU be less chafing 
of the warp. 

Regulating the Shed. — The crank-shaft should be turned 
imtil it is on its back center; the lay will then be in its back- 
ward position and the harnesses should be open to their fullest 
extent. When in this position the yam that forms the bottom 
shed should just clear the race plate of the lay. If the yam 
presses on the race plate it will be chafed, and breakage of 
the ends will result. On the other hand, if the yam is too 
high, it is liable to give the shuttle an upward tendency as it 
enters the shed, which often results in the shuttle either being 
thrown from the loom or not passing straight from one box to 
the other. 

The crank-shaft should next be turned over one pick. This 
will bring the yam, which formed the top shed, at the bottom. 
This bottom shed should be regulated in the same manner as 
the previous one. 

Position of Warp Line. — The warp line may be defined as an 
imaginary Hne drawn from the top of the whip roll to the top 
of the breast beam and passing through the shed when open. 
The position that the warp line assumes forms an important 
point in the production of cloth on which there is to be more 
or less cover. If, when the shed is open, the waip line passes 
through its center there will be an equal strain on both sets of 
warp threads, since both harnesses move an equal distance 
from the point at which they become level. Except in special 
cases, this is not desirable. 



COTTON WEAVING 259 

When the warp line occupies this position, it generally 
results in the cloth having a hard, reedy appearance, the warp 
ends having the appearance of being laid in the cloth in pairs, 
since two ends will be close together and a space between these 
and the next two. If, however, the whip roll and the breast 
beam are raised, the warp line will pass through the upper half 
of the shed. This ■will result in the yam in the top shed being 
more slack than the yam in the bottom shed, and as the pick 
of the filling is beaten up by the reed it will spread the yam 
that forms the top shed between the ends that form the bottom 
shed. This will tend to give the cloth an even appearance 
and cover. 

Any setting of the loom to produce cover or a full appearance 
in the cloth, puts a greater strain on the warp ends, and care 
should be taken not to go to an extreme. 

Timing the Picking Motion. — To time a picking cam, turn 
the crank-shaft until it is on its top center; then set the picking 
cam so that it ■5\'ill just start to move the picker stick. Turn 
the crank-shaft until it is on its top center again, when the^ 
picking cam on the other side of the loom should be set in tha 
same manner. 

If the picking cams are set so that the point of the cam 
starts to raise the pick cone before the crank-shaft reaches 
its top center, the loom is picking early. If the picking can' 
does not start the pick cone until the crank-shaft has passed, 
its top center, the loom is picking late. 

Adjusting the Lug Strap. — The lug strap should be adjusted 
in such a position that the point where connected to the picker 
stick will be level with where it is fastened to the picking-shaft 
arm. If possible, the lug strap where attached to the picker 
stick should never be on a lower level than the rest of the con- 
nections, since when in this position it has a tendency to slide 
up on the picker stick, due to the force coming from above the 
point where it is connected. This is very liable to result in a 
weak pick and the shuttle not receiving sufficient power to 
reach the opposite box. 

If the lug strap is raised on the picker stick there will be less 
power imparted to the shuttle, and if it is lowered the opposite 
effect will be the result. 



260 COTTON WEAVING 

In placing lug straps on a loom, care should be taken that 
they have a little play. Under no condition should they be 
tight when the picker stick is at rest at the outer end of the 
box. 

Starting Pickers. — To place a picker on the picker stick, 
have the picker stick at its backward throw, and place the 
picker so that its under side will just clear the bottom of the 
box. Bring the shuttle up hard against the picker so as to 
mark it. Where this mark comes on the picker, cut a small 
circular hole for the reception of the shuttle point. It is 
generally the practice to have the hole in the picker, when the 
picker stick is at the limit of its forward throw, a little higher 
(say about xs ^•) than that point of the shuttle with which 
the picker is in contact. This will slightly depress the for- 
ward end of the shuttle, or the end first entering the shed, and 
consequently render the shuttle less liable to fly out. 

Adjusting the Binders. — The binder holds the tip of the 
shuttle in actual contact with the picker while the shuttle is in 
the box. The shuttle should commence to press against the 
binder only when its widest part comes in contact with that 
part of the binder that projects into the box. It should then 
steadily press out the binder until that part of the shuttle 
which first came in contact with the binder has reached the 
other end of the projection on the binder. When set in this 
-manner the binder will present its full face to the side of the 
shuttle when the shuttle is at rest in the box. 

Adjusting of Protector Motion. — ^To set the protector 
■motion, have the shuttle out of the box; then adjust the 
iingers at the back of the boxes in such a manner that they will 
press against the binders; bring the lay forwards and see that 
the dagger engages with the bunter on the frog. Next insert 
the shuttle in the box and see that the dagger clears the bunter, 
by about J in., when the lay is brought forwards. 

Timing of Filling Stop-Elotion. — To time the filling stop- 
motion, have the shuttle on the filling-fork side of the loom; 
then bring the lay up to the full throw of the crank, so that it is 
on its front center. When the loom is in this position, turn the 
filling-fork cam on the cam-shaft until its point is just commenc- 
ing to raise the lever on which it acts. Notice the position of 



COTTON WEAVING 261 

the finger of this lever in relation to the back end of the filling 
fork. There should be a space of about J in. between them. 

Banging Off. — Banging off is caused by the shuttle not enter- 
ing the box in time to prevent the dagger of the protector 
motion engaging with the frog. It may be due to any one or 
more of the following: (1) Picking too early or too late; 
(2) picking cam worn or slipped; (3) shed too early or too late; 
(4) shed too small or not adjusted correctly; (5) boxes too 
tight or too loose; (6) power of pick too great or too little; 
(7) imperfect or dirty shuttle; (8) imperfect picker; (9) driv- 
ing belt slack; (10) protector motion out of adjustment. 

Shuttles Flying. — ^Any obstruction, however slight, will 
serve to throw the shuttle out of its course, and very probably 
out of the loom. The principal causes of this are: (1) Bottom 
shed too high; (2) broken and tangled warp ends; (3) shedding 
too late or picking too early; (4) picker adjusted too low or 
badly worn; (5) reed damaged or out of position; (6) the race 
plate higher than box; (7) obstructions on race plate, etc. 

Thin Places in Cloth. — Thin places in cloth may result when 
the loom is started after replacing the filling, or they may occur 
while the loom is running. The thin places occurring when 
the loom is running are not at all times easily overcome. 
When a friction let-off is being used, the cause for this defect 
is frequently found in the rope that is wound around the beam. 
head. In such a case the rope should be thoroughly cleaned 
of all foreign substances and rubbed with graphite. If an 
automatic let-ofT is being used, the gears should be carefully 
examined and all the setscrews tightened. The gears of the 
take-up motion should also be examined. These are very apt 
to become clogged, and should be thoroughly cleaned. 

Knocking off Filling. — If the shuttle is being sent across the 
loom at a high speed and is then suddenly stopped, the filling 
that it carries on the spindle will have a tendency to leave the 
spindle; consequently, anything to lessen this blow will also 
lessen the liability of the filling knocking off. As light a pick as 
will do the required work should be given to the shuttle, and 
when the shuttle is entering the box it should be checked in as 
gradual a manner as possible. Frequently, when cop filling is 
being used, it will be knocked off on account of the spindle 



262 COTTON WEAVING 

of the shuttle not being large enough to firmly retain the 
cop. 

Kinky Filling. — Kinky filling is usually the result of too much 
twist. When such is the case, the filling should be thoroughly 
dampened, either by being steamed or having water sprinkled 
on it. If the filling is allowed to run out of the shuttle too 
freely, more than the required length for one pick is very 
liable to be given off, and when beaten up by the reed it will 
be sure to rise in ridges. 

Another cause of kinky filling is the shuttle rebounding in 
the box sufficiently to cause slack filling, but not enough to 
result in the loom banging off. 

Filling Cutting. — The box sides should be carefully examined, 
to ascertain whether there are any projections or rough places 
that wiU cut the filling. 

The filling fork should also be examined to determine whether 
it is passing through the grid freely. If it does not, but comes 
in contact, it is apt to cut the filling. The pin that holds the 
spindle in the shuttle may become loose and project a short 
distance from the side of the shuttle. 

The shuttle spindle should not be thrown up when the shuttle 
is checked in the box. If it is, the spring in the heel of the 
shuttle, known as the spindle spring, should be tightened. 

Sometimes the heel of the temple may be set in such a manner 
that the temple will come in contact with the reed. When 
this happens, the filling is very liable to be cut. 



DOBBIES 

The number of harnesses that can be operated by a cam-loom 
is limited, hence, if the ntunber of ends that interlace differently 
exceeds 6 but does not exceed 25, a dobby is generally employed. 
Also, when looms are frequently changed from one weave to 
another, such changes are much more easily accomplished 
with dobby looms than with cam-looms. 

A section of a dobby shedding arrangement, which is attached 
to a loom of ordinary construction, is shown in Fig. 1. The 
operation of this mechanism may be explained as follows: 



COTTON WEAVING 



263 



Assvune that the different parts are in the position shown with 
a peg in the pattern chain under the finger k operating the 
bottom hook hs. This peg throwing up the outer end of the 
finger allows the inner end, on which the hook rests, to drop; 
this allows the outer end of the hook hs also to drop. As the 
dobby crank-shaft revolves and operates the rocker h, the lower 




•Fig. 1 

arm of the rocker h in being pushed out will carry with it the 
knife hs, which will engage with the hook hs and thus take 
with it the lower end of the jack p. The upper end of the jack 
bearing against the girt p2 will be fulcrumed at this point, so 
that as its lower end is brought out by the action of the knife 
it will operate the lever r, which is connected to the jack p at 
the point ra. The lever r in being pulled outwards will, through 



264 



COTTON WEAVING 



the strap connections, raise the harness connected to that 
lever- If on the next pick it is desired that this harness be 
down no peg will be inserted in the pattern chain to operate 
the finger ^3; consequently, the knife hi, which is moving out 
on this pick, will escape the hook h2, and the bottom knife hi 
in returning will allow the pull of the springs attached to the 
bottom of the harness to pull the harness down to its lowest 
position. If, on the other hand, it is desired to have this 
harness remain up on the second pick, a peg is inserted in 
the pattern chain to raise the outer end of the finger operating 
the top hook. The outer end of the . finger in being raised 
causes its inner end to drop, and this motion, being imparted 
to the top hook /z2 through the wire w, allows this hook to 
engage with the top knife and be carried out on this pick; this 
brings the upper arm of the jack p outwards at the same time 
that its lower arm is moving inwards and holds the harness in 
its upper position. 

Dobbies are said to be double-lift or single-lift, according to 
whether the jack is operated by two hooks, as in Fig. 1, or if 
only one hook is attached to the jack. 

Dobbies are double-index or single-index according to whether 
or not there is a separate index finger for each hook, both top 
and bottom. 

Pegging Harness Chains. — The order of lifting and lowering 
the harnesses with a dobby is marked on design paper and is 
known as the chain draft, as it is from this draft that the harness 
chain is made. Fig. 2 shows a harness 
chain draft for a weave. Each row of 
squares running vertically represents the 
order in which 1 harness is raised and 
lowered, while each row of squares run- 
ning horizontally shows what harnesses 
are up on each pick; the bottom horizontal 
row of squares generally indicates the first 
pick. The filled-in squares show that a Fig. '2 

harness is up, and the blank squares that a harness is down. 

When building a harness chain, the first thing to determine 
is the first harness and the first pick, as shown on the draft. 
It next becomes necessary to peg the pattern chain in such a 





1 




1 




1 




1 




■ 


1 




1 




1 












^H 




1 




1 




1 








!■ 1 


1 




1 




1 










- 




1 




1 




1 


1 


!■ 






1 


Vi 


F 


1 




1 


1 


,T 






1 




1 




1 


J 




b 


1 




1 




1 


ll 


■ 




1 




1 




i^-> 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


,1 2|3|4 S 6 7 


89 


10 


II 


12 



COTTON WEAVING 265 

manner that the bar containing the first pick will be placed 
on the cylinder first, and the pegs that control the first harness 
miist come at the front of the loom so that the pegs will operate 
the first lever. When the first harness and the first pick are 
not designated on the draft, it is safe to assume that the lower 
left-hand comer will give the position of these two. 

In Fig. 3, the draft given in Pig. 2 is pegged for a double- 
index dobby that is placed at the right-hand side of the loom. 
The first, or front, harness is operated by the vertical rows of 
pegs marked a, ci; b indicates the first pick. In Fig. 4, the 
same draft is shown pegged for a single-index dobby that is 

a. 



IT' 



ooo»o»o»ooo ooooo 



• ••oo**o*o*ooooooooo 

• •00*«0«0«0*0000000Q 



• O«O*OOOOO*«'OOOOOCO0 

o»o«o«ooooo«oooooooo 



Fig. 3 

located on the left-hand side of the loom. The order of raising 
and lowering the front harness is shown at a; 6 indicates the 
harnesses that are raised or lowered on the first pick. 

Timing a Dobby. — In case the dobby is driven from the 
crank-shaft, turn the loom until its crank-shaft is on the bot- 
tom center; keeping the loom in this position, move the con- 
necting-rod on the dobby until the dobby crank-shaft is on 
its back center. When in this position, the rockers should be 
perpendicular. Should they not be in this exact position, they 
may be adjusted by loosening the setnuts at the bottom of the 
connecting-rod and then moving the rocker until it is in the 



266 



COTTON WEAVING 



desired position. When the dobby is driven from the cam-shaft, 
place the loom crank-shaft on its bottom center. Have the 
crank to which the connecting-rod of the dobby is attached 
on its back center, and adjust the rockers so that they will be 
perpendicular when the different parts are in the positions 
stated. 

a 
J 



ooeoooooo«o«o«o»«»»9 ■• — ff 



00000000*0 



o o o • • • 



ooooooooo«o 



o o • • • 



oooooooo*o«o*o«*oo«» 



ooooooooo«o«o»«««oo» 



oooooooo 



• • • o o 



oooooooooooo»«o«o»o» 



oooooooo ooo«»o«o«o»o 



oooooooooo««ooo»o»o« 



ooooooooo««ooo«o«o»o 



oooooooo«»ooooo»o«o« 



oooooooo«ooooo»o«o«o 



Fig. 4 

Adjusting the Knives. — Turn the loom tmtil the bottom 
knife is at its extreme inward position and then set the knife 
about I in. back of the notches in the hooks; turn the loom over 
and set the top knife similarly. If set in this manner, the top 
knife will be directly over the bottom knife when the rocker 
is perpendicular; both knives will have an equal lift at this 



COTTON WEAVING 267 

point and tlie harnesses that are changing will consequently 
be level. Ihus, the harnesses that are changing are level v/hen 
the crank-shaft of the loom is on its bottom center. 

Timing the Cylinder. — ^When timing the dobby cylinder, 
have one of the knives as far in as it will move. Loosen the 
gears that drive the cylinder and turn the cylinder until the 
pegs operating the hooks for the knife that is in are giving the 
fingers of the dobby their full lift. With the, cylinder in this 
position, turn the worm until the straight part or that portion 
that gives the pause, is operating on the worm-gear on the 
end of the cylinder. 

Considerable care should be taken to have the chain bar 
directly under the fingers when the cylinder stops, so that the 
peijs will lift the fingers and bring down the hooks, causing them 
to be caught by the knife when it starts on its outward stroke. 



BOX LOOMS 

The principle of box looms is that of having at one or both 
ends of the loom a number of boxes, which are generally 
operated by levers and other stiitable mechanism that will 
bring the bottom of the desired box in line with the race plate 
of the loom and thus allow the picker to act on the shuttle 
contained in that box. By this means, several shuttles, each 
containing a different kind or color of filling, can be operated, 
and the one to be used at any given time selected automatically. 
On looms weaving cotton goods, the drop boxes are generally 
placed only at one end of the loom. The number of shuttles 
that can be operated in a box loom is one less than the total 
number of boxes; thus, six is the largest number of shuttles 
that can be run in a 6X 1 loom; four in a 4X 1 loom; two in a 
2X1 loom; etc. The statements made in the following pages 
should be accepted as referring to a 4X 1 drop-box loom. 

The method of operating the boxes with the Crompton 
4X1 box motion is illustrated by Fig. 1. In this view the 
first box is shown level with the race plate, and if it is desired 
to raise the lifting rod a-i, and consequently the boxes a, so 
that the picker b will act on the shuttle carried by the second 



268 



COTTON WEAVING 



box, the front shaft d of the box motion will be given a half 
revolution. This will cause the eccentric di on the shaft to 
raise the collar gi and consequently the lever g at its forward 
end. As no motion is given to the crank-arrangement at the 
back end of the lever g, the forward end of the lever will be 




Fig. 1 



brought up to the point 2, this lift being sufficient to bring the 
bottom of the second box level with the bottom of the race 
plate. When it is desired to bring the third box into position 
the eccentric arrangement of the front shaft d remains in the 
position shown, and a half revolution is given to the back shaft 



COTTON WEAVING 



269 



e, causing the crank-arrangement e-i, ez to lower the back end 
of the lever g to the point gs, and the front end of the lever to 
be raised to the point 3, which lift is sufficient to bring the 
bottom of the third box level with the race plate. If the dif- 
ferent parts of the box motion are in the position shown and 
it is desired to bring the fourth box into position for the picker 
to act on the shuttle contained by that box, both the front and 
back shafts will be given a half revolution, which will result 
in the eccentric on the front shaft raising the lever g at this 
point, and the crank-arrangement on the back shaft will drop 
the back end of the lever g to the point gs. This action of 
the two shafts will result in the forward end of the lever g 
being raised to the point 4t which lift will be sufficient to bring 
the bottom of the fourth box level with the race plate. 

In dropping the boxes, the motion given to the lever g will, 
of course, be opposite to that described for raising them, the 
motion being positive in both directions. 

The motion of the front shaft d and back shaft e is obtained 
by suitable mechanism and is controlled by levers operated 
by a box chain. As each bar of the box chain serves for only 
2 picks of the loom, if the pattern being woven contains a large 
number of picks of each color, it would be necessary to build 
a very long box chain. To overcome this difficulty, a mechan- 
ism known as the multiplier motion is applied to most box looms. 
By means of this motion, the box-chain bar that controls the 
box containing the required color will not have to be built for 
every 2 picks, since it will be possible to build any bar in such 
a manner that in addition to raising the required box it will also 
multiply the number of picks that that bar of the chain governs. 



/ge 


Blue 


24 












12 




4 




4 




12 


























2a 


W/tite 




24 








!2 




4 




4 




4 




12 








24 
















\3U 


Red 






12 




12 




















12 




12 


















'4t^ 


yellow 








12 


















_l 






L2. 





















Fig. 2 



Building Box Chains. — Box chains are built from pattern 
drafts, which show the nurr.ber of picks of each color in one 
repeat and the order in which they are placed in the cloth. 



270 



COTTON WEAVING 



t&'Boii? 



A box-chain draft is shown in Fig. 2. With this draft as a guide, 
it is necessary to build the box chain in such a manner that the 
exact number of picks of each color shown in the draft will be 
placed in the cloth in their proper order. One other point 
that should be noted is that in many cases the colors are so 
arranged that it is a difficult matter to build the chain without 
serious jumps in the boxes, for although it is possible to raise 
the boxes from the first to the fourth 
or to lower them from the fourth 
to the first, this should be avoided 
as much as possible; consequently, 
when building a box chain care 
should always be taken to place 
the different colors in the different 
boxes in such a manner that the 
least possible number of jumps will 
be necessary. A jump occurs when 
the boxes are moved through a 
greater space than is occupied by 
one box. By referring to Fig. 2, 
it will be noticed that by placing 
blue in the first box, white in the 
second, red in the third, and yellow 
In the fourth, the boxes will be 
lifted in regular order and no 
jumps will occur; whereas, if the 
red is placed in the second box 
. and the white in the third, it will 
be necessary to jump the boxes in 
many cases. Fig. 3 

Fig. 3 shows five bars of a filling chain, each bar showing 
a different arrangement of rollers and washers; the first, or 
top, bar contains a multiplier roll for placing the multiplier 
motion in operation. It will be seen that, with the exception 
of this roll, the bar consists of washers; consequently, a bar 
built in this manner will give 12 picks of the first box if a 12-pick 
multiplier motion is used. The next bar contains washers 
only, and, as a result, the first box will be on a line with tlie 
race plate. The next bar contains a roll that will operate the 




^M^Joat 



COTTON WEAVING 



271 



Fig. 4 



lever of the box motion that will raise the second 
box. The next bar contains a roll that wiU operate 
the lever of the box motion that wiU result in the 
third box being brought into position. The bot- 
tom bar is built to give the fourth box, as it 
operates both levers. 

When building a box chain for a loom., the side 
on which the box mechanism is placed should be 
carefuUy noted and the chain built in such a man- 
ner that the rollers and washers will come under 
their correct levers. 

Fig. 4 shows the complete chain built according 
to the chain draft. The first color called for in the 
draft is 24 picks of blue; this color is in the first 
box. To obtain these 24 picks of blue the first 
two bars of the chain, reading from the top, are 
built to give the first box and on the end of each 
bar is placed a multiplier roll. Since each bar con- 
taining a multiplier roll will give 12 picks, these 
first two bars of the chain will give 24 picks of the 
first box. The next color in the draft is 24 picks of 
white, which is in the second box. These two bars 
are built in the same m^anner as the first two, with 
the exception that there is placed on each a roll 
that will raise the inside lever of the box motion 
and thus give the second box. By comparing each 
bar of the box chain with the filling draft it 
will be seen that the desired result will be given. 
However, it should be noted that when it is 
necessary to place only 4 picks of a color in the 
cloth, the multiplier cannot be used. In this case, 
two bars are built to give the desired box and, 
since each bar operates for 2 picks, the desired 
4 picks will be given. 

In case it is necessary to place a certain number 
of picks of one color in the cloth, this number being 
greater than 12 and yet not a multiple of 12, as 
many bars as possible will be built with multi- 
pliers and then the desired number will be 



2:12 COTTON WEAVING 

completed by building a sufficient number of bars without 
multipliers. For example, suppose it is desired to place 30 
picks of one color in the cloth; two bars containing multipliers 
will be built, which will give 24 of the required picks, and in 
addition to these, three bars without multipliers will be built, 
which will give 6 more picks, thus completing the 30 picks. 

Timing of Box Motions. — The boxes should be timed in 
such a manner that they will not start to change before the 
shuttle is well into the box and will be completely changed 
before the loom cormnences to pick. If the boxes commence 
to change before the shuttle is well boxed, the shuttle will be 
caught in the mouth of the box and will thus prevent the chang- 
ing. On the other hand, if the loom commences to pick before 
the boxes are completely changed, the bottom of the box will 
not be level with the race plate when the shvittle is thrown. 

There are several methods of timing the boxes, one probably 
being as good as another, so long as it accomplishes the result 
of changing the boxes in time. One method is to set the box- 
changing device so that the boxes will have moved about \ in. 
when the dagger on the protector rod strikes the bunter. 

Leveling the Boxes. — ^After the boxes have been timed so 
that when changing they will start and stop correctly, it is 
necessary to level them; that is, the lifting parts should be so. 
adjusted that whenever a box is brought into position, the 
bottom of that box will be on an exact level with the race plate 
of the loom. This will sometimes be found to be difficult, 
since in many cases all the boxes, with the exception of one, 
may be in a correct position, and yet changing the one that is 
a little out of true may so alter the lift of the others that, when 
they are again brought into operation, they will be found to 
be either above or below the correct position. The leveling 
of the boxes is a matter of leverage, and the different arms of 
the levers must be so set that they will give the throw required. 

The boxes should work freely in the grooves in which they 
slide and yet not be so loose as to result in an uneven throw 
being given to the shuttle when acted on by the picker. If 
they are tight in the grooves, they will be raised and lowered 
in a jerky nianner, which may cause the picker to be caught 
in its throw, thus preventing the lifting of the boxes. 



COTTON WEAVING 273 

THE NORTHROP LOOM 

In power looms of ordinary construction it is neces- 
sary that the supply of filling be replenished by hand 
whenever it breaks or the cop, or bobbin, in the shuttle 
becomes exhausted. To accomplish this the loom must 
be stopped, usually by the filling stop-motion, and the 
weaver, after immediately giving the loom proper atten- 
tion, must again place it in operation. In the Northrop, 
or Draper, loom, the filling yarn is automatically renewed 
in the event of breakage or exhaustion, and without 
stopping the loom or requiring the attention of the 
weaver. Looms of this class are called automatic looms. 

When automatic looms are employed, the weaver can 
supply them with large quantities of filling at convenient 
intervals, and this can be accomplished with but little 
labor. Because of this fact, it is possible for each 
weaver to attend to a much larger number of automatic 
looms than is possible when common looms are employed. 
The number of automatic looms that can be attended by 
one weaver doubtless will average fully three times as 
many as in the case of common looms. 

As a result of the increase in the productive capacity 
of weavers through the installation of automatic looms, 
the cost of weaving is greatly reduced. Savings of from 
40 to 50 per cent, have been made in many cases, and 
under favorable conditions the gain is even' greater. 
Also, because of the increased production of the weaver, 
it is possible, and the general custom is, to grant him 
greater compensation. 

Filling-Changing Mechanism.— The principal feature of 
the Northrop loom is, of course, the filling-changing 
mechanism. This is shown in perspective in Fig. 1, 
which illustrates the battery, comprising a hopper, in 
which the supply of filling for replenishing the shuttle is 
carried, and mechanism for transferring the bobbins; 
also devices for controlling the transfer of filling when 
required. 



274 



COTTON WEAVING 




COTTON WEAVING 275 

The bobbins b on which the filling yarn is wound are 
carried in the revolving hopper, which is capable of 
being rotated on its axis. This hopper is always on the 
right-hand side of the loom and consists of a stationary 
flanged end plate q that carries the support on which the 
circular disks c^ and c^ rotate. 

In filling the hopper, the weaver first vmwinds a foot 
or so of filling from the bobbin, places the heel of the 
bobbin in the recess in the disk c^, and presses the tip of 
the bobbin firmly into the clip c^ in the disk Cg. The end 
of filling yarn is then passed over a notched disk Cg that 
holds the yarn in proper position to be threaded in the 
shuttle and is secured by being wound several times 
around the stud c^. 

The number of bobbins contained in the hopper varies 
in looms of different models; most looms are equipped 
with what is known as the 25-bobbin hopper, which con- 
tains twenty-eight spaces for bobbins. 

The transfer of the bobbin from the hopper to the 
shuttle is effected, as shown in Fig. 2, by the transferrer d 
and transferrer fork d^, which, by the motion of the lay 
of the loom, are forced downwards for a short distance, 
swinging on the stud d^, and thus pushing the bobbin out 
of the hopper and into the shuttle. 

The head of the transferrer engages with the heel of 
the bobbin in the hopper and the transferrer fork comes 
in contact with the tip of the bobbin. The filled bobbin, 
in being pressed into the top of the shuttle, forces the 
empty bobbin out through the bottom of the specially- 
designed shuttle, which has no spindle, and it passes 
through an opening in the bottom of shuttle box, over the 
guide &3 and into the sheet-metal receptacle b^. 

The operation of the transferrer and attached mech- 
anism is governed by the starting rod /, Fig. 1. Nor- 
mally, the shuttle-feeler finger /,, which is setscrewed to 
to the starting rod, is held in its lowest position by the 
spring fg. The finger presses down on_ the stud e^ (also, 
see Fig. 2), holding the shuttle feeler e^, which swings on 
the stud e^, away from the lay and, by means of the 



276 



COTTON WEAVING 



slot ^3 and stud e^, causing the 1-atch depressor e^ to hold 

the latch finger e in a depressed position, where it will not 

-~-te in the path of a hunter e attached to the lay. Whenever 




Fig. 2 

the filling is missing, however, a partial revolution is given 
to the starting rod / and the finger f^ is raised against the 
tension of the spring /3. When this takes place, the 
shuttle-feeler finger releases its pressure on the stud e^ 



COTTON WEAVING 277 

and the spring e^ raises the latch finger e^ into an opera- 
tive position so that it will be struck by the bunter e on 
the lay and forced toward the front of the loom for a 
short distance as the lay moves forwards. The movement 
of the latch finger imparted by the motion of the lay 
causes the transferrer d and transferrer fork d^ to be 
forced downwards, transferring the bobbin from the hop- 
per to the shuttle. 

In Fig. 2 the transferrer, latch finger, and other parts 
are shown in the positions that they occupy after the 
bunter has engaged the latch finger and forced it forwards 
to the full extent of its movement, thus causing the trans- 
ferrer to assume its lowest position, placing the bobbin in 
the shuttle as shown. 

Shuttle Feeler. — If the transfer of a bobbin from 
the hopper to the shuttle were to take place with the 
shuttle in such a position as not to properly receive the 
bobbin, it is very probable that parts of the transferring 
mechanism or the shuttle, etc. would be broken. To pre- 
vent the transfer of the bobbin under this condition, the 
shuttle feeler e^ is employed. As the spring e^ causes the 
latch finger e^ to rise into its operative position, the 
stud e.^, which is on an extended arm of the latch finger, 
operates the shuttle feeler e^ by means of the latch depres- 
sor e^. The stud e^ engages with the slot e^ in the latch 
depressor and the upward movement of the latch finger 
causes the latch depressor to swing the shuttle feeler on 
the stud e^ so that its upper end passes directly in front 
of the shuttle box until it nearly reaches the back plate 
of the box. 

If the shuttle a is not far enough in the box for the 
transfer of a bobbin to take place properly, the tip of 
the shuttle will project from the box and the end of the 
shuttle feeler will come in contact with it as the lay 
comes forwards. When this occurs the shuttle feeler will 
be pushed forwards by the shuttle and, by means of the 
latch depressor and stud e^, will depress the latch finger 
so that it will not engage with the bunter e on the lay. 
Instead, the upper rounded corner of the latch finger will 



278 COTTON WEAVING 

engage with the inclined vinder surface of the hunter 
and, as the lay moves forwards, the latch finger, shuttle 
feeler, and other parts will be thrown downwards into 
the positions that they occupy during the normal operation 
of the loom. Under this condition the transfer of a 
bobbin from the hopper to the shuttle, of course, cannot 
take place and the loom will be stopped in the ordinary 
manner for want of filling. 

Hopper. — The manner in which the hopper is rotated 
on its axis c to bring the next bobbin in contact with the 
stop Cg after the preceding bobbin has been inserted in 
the shuttle may be understood by referring to Fig. 2. A 
ratchet gear Cjg, cast integral with the bobbin heel 
plate Cg, is operated by a pawl d^ having a projection, or 
tooth, Jg engaging with the teeth of the ratchet. The pawl 
is swiveled on a stud in the transferrer d and is large 
and heavy so that when the transferrer is thrown down 
by the hunter on the lay engaging the latch finger, the 
tooth dg will become disengaged from the ratchet and the 
pawl will fall forwards and downwards. This causes 
the tooth dg to take up a tooth on the ratchet and when 
the bunter releases the latch finger and the coil spring d^ 
raises the transferrer and pawl, the ratchet and hopper 
will be .turned in the direction indicated by the arrow in 
Fig. 2 until the next bobbin in the hopper strikes the 
stop Cg. A stop pawl c?g attached to the frame also engages 
with the ratchet c^g and serves to hold the hopper securely 
in position. 

Shuttle. — The shuttles required by the Northrop loom 
are of the self-threading type and are designed to utilize 
filling yarn supplied on bobbins or in cop form. One of 
these shuttles is illustrated in Fig. 3. 

The shuttle a is open on the bottom, and is formed to 
receive a bobbin of filling from the top and eject it 
through the opening in the bottom. It does not contain 
the usual spindle; instead, a shuttle spring a^, made in 
the form of a fork with its tines extending on each side 
of the shuttle, is placed in the end opposite the eye. The 
shuttle spring contains notches designed to engage with 



COTTON WEAVING 



279 



metal rings h securely placed on the 
heel of the bobbin h. When the trans- 
ferrer forces a fresh bobbin from the 
hopper into the shuttle, the heel of the 
bobbin is forced between the tines of 
the shuttle spring, and the notches in 
the latter, by engaging with the rings 
placed on the bobbin, securely hold ,.:.^.,«s- 
the bobbin in its proper position in the '^ ^Jf 

shuttle. At the . same time the new 
bobbin, by striking on top of the bob- 
bin already in the shuttle, forces the 
latter out of the shuttle spring so that 
it falls through the openings in the 
bottom of the shuttle and in the lay, 
into the empty-bobbin can. 

If the shuttle should happen to be 
a trifle too far in the box when the 
transfer takes place, the heel of the 
bobbin will strike the bent and in- 
clined shuttle-spring cover a^, which, 
by either forcing the shuttle in one 
direction or the bobbin in the other, 
or both, will guide the bobbin into the 
shuttle so that the rings on the former 
will be properly gripped by the shuttle 
spring. 

The manner in which the self- 
threading feature of the shuttle op- , 
erates may be described as follows: 
When a fresh bobbin is transferred 
from the hopper to the shuttle, the 
end of the filling yarn is held by be- 
ing wound around the stud c , Fig. 1, 
and as it is placed in the proper notch 
in the plate c^ when the hopper is 
filled, the filling thread will be held in 
exact line with the shuttle, as shown 
by the dotted line at b., Fig. 3, when Fig. 3 



280 



COTTON WEAVING 



the latter Is picked across the loom. On the first pick 
after the transfer and as the shuttle moves away from the 
battery side of the loom, therefore, the filling will fall 
into the longitudinal slot Og and pass beneath the horns, or 
projections, a^, a., and a^ of the sheet-metal stamping and 
also beneath the projection a of a small cast-iron piece. 
As the shuttle is driven back toward the battery side of 
the loom, the threading is completed and the end is drawn 
through the ej'e h^ as indicated. A projection (not shown) 
on the casting carrying the projection Cg prevents the 
filling from being thrown out of the shuttle eye when the 
shuttle is checked in the box during the ordinary opera- 
tion of the loom. The customary friction flannel is in- 
serted at a to control the running of the filling. 




Fig. 4 



Filling Motion. — The filling motion of the Northrop 
loom, which is of peculiar and original construction, 
serves a dual purpose. First, it must be arranged to 
impart motion to the starting rod and shuttle-feeler finger 
which control the operation of the transferring mechanism, 
and, second, it must be devised in such a manner as to 
throw the shipper handle of the loom from its retaining 
notch in the event of a failure to transfer. 

The action of the filling-motion mechanism. Fig. 4, in 
controlling the transferring device and the stopping of the 
loom may be described as follows: The rotation of the 
filling cam on the cam-shaft of the loom causes the cam- 
follower g^ to move the follower hook g^ toward the 
front of the loom on every alternate pick, that is, every 
time that the shuttle comes to rest in the box on the left- 



COTTON WEAVING 281 

hand side of the loom. Whenever a pick of filling is left 
in the shed, as in the normal operation of the loom, the 
filling fork will not enter the grate on the lay and will be 
tilted so that it will escape being caught by the hook ^3 
as the latter is moved toward the front of the loom. 
Assuming, however, that the filling becomes broken or 
exhausted, then, as the shuttle enters the box on the left 
of the loom, it will leave behind it no pick of filling and 
the filling fork g^ will not be tilted to escape the follower 
hook Qy Under this condition, as the hook moves 
toward the front of the loom, it will engage the filling 
fork and draw it and the fork slide g^ forwards. As this 
takes place, the stud g^ on the dog g^, which is attached 
to the fork slide, will operate the arm f^, causing the 
starting rod /, Fig. 1, to make a partial revolution, rais- 
ing the shuttle-feeler finger f^ and allowing the trans- 
ferring mechanism on the next pick and with the shuttle 
on the battery side of the loom to operate, as has been 
previously described. 

As the filling-fork slide g. is forced forwards by the 
follower hook g^, a notch in the filling-motion trip h 
will engage with a boss of the guide plate g^. The fork 
slide in being moved forwards, therefore, will cause the 
angular bar h, of the filling-motioii trip to rise out -of the 
notch g^^ in the fork slide, in which it normally is at rest 
and fall into the slot g^^. 

As the motion of the filling-cam follower g^ moves the 
hook fifg in the opposite direction, the fork slide is brought 
back to its normal position by a spring. Suppose that the 
transfer to the shuttle of a fresh supply of filling was 
successfully accomplished, when the transferring mech- 
anism was thrown into operation. Under this condition, 
the shuttle will leave a pick of filling in the shed when 
it again enters the box on the left of the loom and the 
filling fork will be tilted so that the follower hook will 
not engage with it and the transferring mechanism will 
not again be put into operation. Moreover, in moving 
forwards the head of the filling-cam follower g^ will strike 
the end of the filling-motion trip and replace it in its 



282 COTTON WEAVING 

normal position, with the bar h engaging the notch g^... 
On the other hand, assume that for some reason the 
transfer of fresh filling to the shuttle was not properly 
accomplished and the shuttle is again driven into the box. 
on the left-hand side of the loom without leaving behind 
it a pick of filling. In this case, the filling fork will again 
fail to be disturbed and will be engaged by the follower 
hook g„, the filling-fork slide being forced forwards for the 
second time and again operating the arm /^ so as to turn 
the starting rod and again throw the transferring device 
into operation. 

As the filling-fork slide is moved forwards the second 
time, another notch h^ of the filling-motion trip will en- 
gage with a fixed boss and the fork slide in moving for^ 
wards will cause the angular bar h^ of the trip to rise out 
of the notch g^^ of the fork slide and fall into the 
notch g^Q. It will be noticed that the notch g^^, in addition 
to being farther back than the notches g^,j and g^^, is much 
deeper. Thus, when the bar h^ of the filling-motion trip 
is engaged with this notch, the dog h, of the filling- 
motion trip is placed in a position directly back of the 
end of the lever that operates the shipper handle of the 
loom. 

If the second attempt to transfer fresh filling to the 
shuttle fails and the shuttle again enters the left-hand box 
without leaving a pick filling in the shed, the filling fork 
will again engage the cam-follower hook and the fork 
slide will be brought forwards for the third time. In 
this case, however, the filling-motion trip has already 
assumed its extreme position relative to the filling-fork 
slide, and therefore it will, in this case, be moved for- 
wards with the slide. Since the dog h^ of the trip is now 
engaged with the end of the knock-off lever* the latter 
will be moved a sufficient amount to cause the shipper 
handle to be forced from its retaining notch and stop the 
loom. It will be noted, however, that if the second 
attempt to transfer fresh filling to the shuttle is success- 
ful, the pick of filling left by the shuttle as it enters the 
box will cause the filling fork to miss the filling-cam- 



COTTON WEAVING 283 

follower hook and the fork slide will not be moved for- 
wards. The head of the cam-follower g^, however, will 
replace the filling-motion trip, as previously described. It 
will be noted from the foregoing description that, in the 
event of the filling breaking or running out, this deviae 
will cause the loom to make two distinct attempts to 
replenish the filling and, in the event of consecutive 
failure, will stop the loom. 

Feeler Filling-Changing Device.— When the transfer 
of filling is controlled by a filling fork and the customary 
grate, or grid, the transferring mechanism will not be 
placed in operation until the fork has detected the 
absence of filling, due either to breakage or exhaustion. 
Since the transfer of fresh filling cannot take place 
instantaneously, but at least one shed must be left empty 
and very likely only a portion of a pick inserted in 
another shed, a mispick will be made in the cloth. More- 
over, whenever the very last end 6f the filling yarn is 
woven from the bobbin, a bunch is liable to be formed 
in the cloth on account of the last few turns of yarn on 
the bobbin slipping off at once and being woven into the 
cloth in a lump. 

Since the transferring mechanism is operated much 
more frequently because of the exhaustion of the filling 
than on account of the filling becoming broken, a large 
number of mispicks and other defects in the cloth — in 
fact, the bulk of them — ^will be prevented if the trans- 
ferring mechanism is set in operation just before the 
filling in the shuttle becomes exhausted. This, therefore, 
is the object of the feeler filling-changing mechanism, 
sometimes called the mispick preventer, and its use ren- 
ders entirely practicable the weaving of perfect cloth on 
an automatic loom. 

This mechanism is not necessary for looms used for 
weaving plain fabrics, such as print cloths, sheeting, etc., 
because in such fabrics the few mispicks made by an 
automatic loom are not seriously objectionable. 

When fabrics involving the use of more harnesses, 
including fancy fabrics in which the weaves are produced 



284 COTTON WEAVING 

by dobby or jacquard shedding mechanisms, are woven, 
however, mispicks are of serious consequence and the 
loom should be equipped with the feeler filling-changing 
mechanism. 

This device is so arranged that a filling feeler that 
projects through the front-box plate and a slot in the 
side of the shuttle, feels for the filling wound on the 
bobbin. When only a layer, or so, of yarn remains on 
the bobbin, the starting rod is operated by a suitable 
mechanism and fresh filling is supplied to the shuttle; 
thus the filling in the shuttle is never allowed to become 
exhausted. 

Shuttle-Feeler Thread Cutter. — An attachment known 
as a shuttle-feeler thread cutter is necessary on all looms 
equipped with the filling-feeler device for operating the 
transferring mechanism. Whenever the latter mechanism 
is placed in operation by the filling-feeler motion, and 
not by the breaking of the filling as detected by the 
filling motion, a thread of filling extends from the 
selvage of the cloth through the shuttle eye to the 
bobbin contained in the shuttle. When the fresh bobbin 
of filling is inserted in the shuttle, not only must the 
old bobbin be removed, but the shuttle eye must be 
cleared to allow the yarn from the new bobbin to be 
properly threaded in the eye. To accomplish this the 
thread extending from the selvage of the cloth must be 
cut as closely as possible to the shuttle so that the old 
bobbin, in being ejected, will draw the short length of 
yarn, left extending from the shuttle, through the shuttle 
eye, leaving the latter entirely clear and free. 

The temple thread cutter alone cannot accomplish this 
result, as it cuts the thread at too great a distance from 
the shuttle eye and it does not positively operate at the 
correct time. The object is attained by means of a 
thread cutter, mounted on the shuttle feeler, which not 
only severs the filling yarn close to the shuttle at the 
time of the transfer of filling, but also clamps and holds 
the end extending to the cloth so that the temple thread 
cutter will again cut the yarn close to the selvage. 



COTTON WEAVING 285 

Dual Function of Straddle Bug.— The straddle bug g^. 
Fig. 4, is so designed as to be placed on its stud g_^^ in 
two positions, that is, with the stud g^ at the left, en- 
gaging with the arm /^ on the starting rod, or with the 
stud at the right, in which position it will not engage 
with the arm f^. When the straddle bug is placed in the 
former position, the transferring mechanism will be set 
in operation by the filling motion when the filling breaks 
or becomes exhausted, since the stud g^ will operate the 
arm f^ and turn the starting rod. 

When the filling-feeler device is applied to the loom 
the filling, of course, will not become exhausted, as the 
loom is caused to transfer just before the bobbin in the 
shuttle becomes empty. As on many fabrics the possible 
mispicks from a comparatively few breakages of the filling 
are not of vital importance, the straddle bug is often 
placed in the position shown in Fig. 4 on many looms 
equipped with the filling-feeler attachment. That is, the 
latter device prevents the majority of defects, and a few 
mispicks, caused by the breaking of the filling, are tol- 
erated in order to preserve fully the automatic features 
of the loom. 

When, however, fabrics are woven in which it is abso- 
lutely necessary that the pick be matched, as in fancy 
weave effects, fine napped goods, etc., the straddle bug is 
removed from stud g^ and replaced with the stud g^ 
at the right. In this position the stud g^ will not engage 
the arm f^, and the projection g^^ will rest directly behind 
the lever which throws the shipper handle from its re- 
taining notch and stops the loom. Thus, whenever the 
filling breaks, the loom will not transfer, as stud g^ will 
not operate arm /^ and the starting rod, but instead the 
loom will be stopped as in the case of common looms. 

Double Filling-Fork Arrangement.— A single filling 
fork placed at one side of the loom can detect the pres- 
ence or absence of only every alternate pick of filling. 
Naturally, the filling may break when the shuttle is 
traveling toward either side of the loom. As the transfer 
of filling can take place only when the shuttle is at rest 



286 COTTON WEAVING 

on the hopper side of the loom and because of the 
peculiar action of the filling motion, shuttle feeler, etc., 
which may delay the transfer, from one to three picks of 
filling may be missed in the fabric before fresh filling is 
supplied. The number of picks, and possibly portions of 
picks, varies, of course, and it is clearly evident that a 
single filling fork operating at one side of the loom will 
be unable to detect all of these variations. When, there- 
fore, cloth in which the slightest defect is objectionable is 
woven, an additional filling fork operating on the right- 
hand side of the loom is supplied. This extra filling 
fork is applied to looms equipped with the filling-feeler 
device, and, also, is very often attached to looms having 
only the single-fork filling-changing mechanism, because 
it not only affords extra protection against possible im- 
proper functioning of various parts but, in addition, 
furnishes a double control over the take-up motion. By 
virtue of this latter fact, the slightest thin place or crack 
in the fabric is prevented. 

Warp Stop-Motions.— When an end of the warp breaks 
in a loom of ordinary construction, the machine con- 
tinues to run until the defect is observed and the loom 
stopped bj'' the weaver. If a considerable period of time 
elapses before this is accomplished, not only will a more 
or less prominent defect be formed in the fabric but the 
broken end often will become entangled with adjacent 
ends, which also may become broken, and a more serious 
imperfection will be made in the cloth. To obviate this 
fault and automatically stop the loom whenever a warp 
end breaks, warp stop-motions are applied to many 
looms. Such devices are especially necessary when auto- 
matic, or filling-replenishing, looms are employed, be- 
cause, in such cases, the weaver attends to so many 
looms that the prompt observance of broken warp ends is 
difficult, and the immediate stopping of the loom is 
otherwise impossible. 

There are several different types of warp stop-motions, 
but those ordinarily employed in connection with the 



COTTON WEAVING 287 

Northrop loom are mechanically operated and of two 
principal kinds, namely, the cotton-harness warp stop- 
motion and the steel-harness warp stop-motion. 

FIXING NORTHROP LOOMS 

The adjustment, timing, and repair of many parts of 
the Northrop loom are not different from the care of the 
similar parts of an ordinary loom. The additional and 
typical devices and mechanisms of this loom, however, 
require special care on the part of the loom fixer. Incor- 
rect timing and setting will result not only in failure to 
replenish the filling when required but in some cases 
will cause parts to be broken. 

Adjustment of Filling-Changing Mechanism.— In ad- 
justing this mechanism, first the lay should be pulled 
forwards to the front center and the filling fork care- 
fully adjusted so that the prongs of the fork will freely 
pass through the grate, or grid. The filling-motion 
cam g. Fig. 1, on the cam, or bottom, shaft of the loom 
is timed in the ordinary manner. The filling-motion 
arm, or finger, f^ now should . be placed against the 
stud <7g of the straddle-bug g^ carried by the filling-fork 
slide g^ and the finger secured to the starting rod /. 
Next, the loom should be turned forwards with the filling- 
motion fork g_i^ engaged with the hook g^, which will push 
back the finger f^ and turn the starting rod into its opera- 
tive position. 

The next operation is to loosen and raise the shuttle- 
feeler finger /^ until the shuttle feeler e. passes in front 
of the mouth of the shuttle box, whereupon the finger 
should be securely fastened to the starting rod. By 
means of the slotted latch depressor e^, attached to the 
shuttle feeler, the latch finger ^^ should now be adjusted 
so that It will be in position to be struck by the hunter e 
on the lay and the latter should be brought forwards to 
its front center, thus operating the transferrer d. 

The latch finger should be adjusted by means of the 
adjusting screw e^ and locknut ^^^ so that the transferrer 
and transferrer fork will have a downward movement 



288 COTTON WEA VI NG 

just sufficient to force the empty bobbin from the shuttle 
and place the fresh bobbin in correct position in the 
shuttle spring. The proper adjustment is to have the 
head of the transferrer just clear the head of the bobbin 
when the latter is in its lowest position; this clearance 
should not exceed j-g inch. 

Position and Care of Shuttle.— It is important to have 
the shuttle stopped in the box in exactly the correct 
position to receive the bobbin when the latter is pushed 
into it by the transferrer. If the pick is too weak, the 
shuttle may not fully enter the box, and if too strong, 
the shuttle may be rebound. When adjusting the shuttle 
feeler and latch finger, therefore, the shuttle should be 
pulled from the box until the shuttle feeler will strike 
its tip when thrown upwards. When the shuttle feeler 
is in this position — that is, in contact with the protrud- 
ing shuttle — great care should be taken to see that the 
latch finger will not engage the hunter on the lay in 
such a manner as to cause the transfer to take place. 
Should the loom be stopped with an empty bobbin in the 
shuttle, it is an indication that the transfer has been 
prevented by the shuttle feeler, and steps should be 
taken at once to insure that the shuttle will be properly 
boxed. 

The metal parts of the shuttle should be kept securely 
fastened, especially the shuttle spring, which must be 
kept tight in order properly to recei\'e and hold the 
bobbin. The eye of the shuttle and the thread passages 
to the eye must always be kept open and free. Some- 
times these become clogged with lint and occasionally 
the thread passages to the eye are closed by jamming or 
bruising of the metal. 

Any defect that prevents the filling from entering the 
shuttle eye will cause misthreading to take place, which 
will not only break the filling, but will cause a mispick 
to be made in the cloth. If the loom misthreads several 
times in succession, a defect in the cloth is sometimes 
made that is beyond repair, necessitating the cutting of 
the cloth. When the shuttle misthreads, the filling fork 



COTTON WEAVING 289 

will be operated correctly on the first pick after the 
transfer, but as the shuttle is returned on the next pick, 
the filling will be broken and the transferring mech- 
anism will again be placed in operation, which may 
continue until all of the bobbins have been transferred 
from the hopper. 

Setting of Feeler Filling-Changing Mechanism.— In 
looms in which the filling feeler and feeler thread- 
cutting mechanisms are used, the filling-cam-follower 
trip should be so adjusted on tha upper end of the 
filling-cam follower that the notch will engage the feeler 
slide when the latter has been raised into its active 
position by the filling-feeler mechanism, and this con- 
tact should take place just as the crank-shaft of the 
loom reaches its front center. 

To adjust the filling feeler itself, an empty bobbin 
should be placed in the shuttle and the latter inserted 
in the box. With the loom on the front center and the 
lay in its extreme forward position, the adjusting screw 
should be turned until there is a distance of about the 
thickness of one layer of yarn between the feeler and 
the bobbin in the shuttle. Several bobbins ^containing a 
small amount of yarn now may be taken, and the loom 
started after one of them has been inserted in the 
shuttle. If the bobbin is ejected before the filling yarn 
has been woven down close enough, or if the filling 
weaves entirely off before the transfer takes place, the 
screw can be adjusted one way or the other as may te 
required. A number of trials may be necessary before 
the feeler is correctly adjusted. 

The filling feeler should be set to pass through the 
slots in the box plate and in the shuttle, without touch- 
ing either part. For the same reason, care should be 
taken that the shuttle boxes properly on the left-hand 
side of the loom. It is good practice to set the feeler as 
closely as possible to the upper edge of the slot in the 
shuttle, because the latter may rise slightly in entering 
the box. This may cause the feeler to strike the lower 
edge of the slot in the shuttle and force back the feeler 



290 COTTON WEAVING 

so that the transfer of filling will be prevented when the 
filling in the shuttle is exhausted. 

Adjusting Shuttle-Feeler Thread Cutter.— In looms 
equipped with the filling feeler and shuttle-feeler thread 
cutter, the starting rod and shuttle feeler will be 
operated in the same manner as when the former is 
functioned by the filling-fork slide. However, the feeler 
thread cutter, which is carried by the shuttle feeler on 
looms having the filling-feeler device, must be so ad- 
justed that the bunter on the lay will operate the 
thread cutter and cause the filling to be cut properly. 
Also, the shuttle feeler must prevent the operation of 
the transferring mechanism in case the shuttle is pro- 
jecting from the box so as not to be in proper position 
to receive the fresh bobbin of filling. The correct results 
ordinarily can be obtained without difiiculty by changing 
the angle of the thread cutter so as to place .it either 
farther, or not so far, forwards, or by raising or low- 
ering it. Care should be taken to make the adjustment 
in such a manner that the thread cutter does not cut 
the filling unless a bobbin is transferred, as this will 
make a mispick in the cloth. 

The shuttle-feeler thread cutter also must be adjusted 
so that whenever a bobbin is transferred the thread 
from the exhausted bobbin will enter the opening in the 
end of the thread cutter. The thread must not only be 
cut, but also must be held and drawn back until again 
cut by the temple thread cutter. Heavy or light filling 
may require this adjustment to be altered and also may 
require a .slight alteration in the position of the shuttle- 
feeler thread cutter. 

Care of Cotton-Harness Warp Stop-Motion.— In adjust- 
ing the cotton-harness warp stop-motion, the first opera- 
tion is to throw off the driving belt of the loom or else 
disconnect the belt-shipping mechanism so that the 
shipper handle can be placed in its retaining notch. 

The knock-off link is then drawn forwards against its 
bearing in the hub of the cam. 



COTTON WEAVING 291 

Next, the feeler bar is placed in its central position 
with reference to the two box plates and the loose and 
tight oscillator fingers adjusted so that they will project 
evenly from each side of the feeler shaft, or at right 
angles with the feeler-bar holders. 

The oscillator cam now should be loosened in order 
that the cam may be revolved by hand, and the tight 
knock-off ^og adjusted by its setscrew so as to clear the 
lug by about -i^ of an inch. Next turn the oscillator 
cam until the cam follower rests on the lowest part, or 
heel, of the cam, when the feeler should be near the back 
box plate. The loose oscillator finger now should be 
connected with the cam follower by means of the oscil- 
lator rod and turnbuckle. The latter should be adjusted 
so that the feeler bar will move equally toward both 
box plates. The tight oscillator finger now is attached 
to the loose knock-off dog by means of the oscillator rod 
and turnbuckle, the adjustment being made so that the 
loose knock-off dog will just clear the lug on the hub 
of the oscillator cam. If it now is found that the feeler 
bar does not move equally toward each box plate, the 
trouble may be corrected by further adjustment of the 
oscillator rods by means of the turnbuckles. 

The tension of the cam-follower spring should be 
adjusted so as just to be sufficient to cause the cam 
follower Og to follow the cam contour when the point of 
contact moves from the toe to the heel of the cam. If 
the tension of this spring is too great, the drop wire 
will be struck too hard a blow and will be liable to be 
bent or injured when trapped between the feeler bar 
and the rear box plate. 

Care of Steel-Harness Warp Stop-Motion.— In adjusting 
the steel-harness warp stop-motion the shipper handle 
is placed in its retaining notch and the loom turned over 
until the feeler bars are moved into their extreme for- 
ward positions directly beneath the stop-motion girt. 
The knock-off link now is drawn forwards against its 
bearing in the hub of the oscillator cam, and the cam 
follower should bear against the heel, or lowest part, of 



292 COTTON WEAVING 

the cam. The knock-off dog now should be set so as to 
just clear the lugs on the hub of the cam. 

The setting of the oscillator cam is controlled by the 
setting of the harness cams that raise and lower the 
heddle bars to form the sheds in the warp, and this 
setting should be altered to work with the setting of the 
harness cams if the latter is changed for any reason. 

When the harness that is rising is just passing the 
harness that is falling, or is level with it, the long axis 
of the cam should be horizontal, or level, and the cam 
should be fastened to the cam-shaft in this position. The 
tension of the oscillator cam-follower spring should be 
adjusted so that the feeler bars will not strike too hard 
a blow on the heddle when the latter is allowed to fall 
by a broken warp end and is trapped between the feeler 
bar and stop-motion girt. 

General Care of Warp Stop-Motions. — As a rule, warp 
stop-motions occasion but little trouble. There are, how- 
ever, several minor difficulties that may be remedied 
easily when the causes are recognized. The lower ends 
of the steel heddles or of the drop-wire detectors are 
sometimes badly bent and twisted by the action of the 
feeler bar. In most cases, this will be found to be due 
to an improper adjustment of some working part, the 
fallen heddle or drop wire being struck repeatedly by 
the feeler bar and the loom failing to be stopped. 

The bars supporting the drop wires or heddles should 
be kept straight, clean, and smooth. In the steel-harness 
stop-motion, if the heddle bars are not straight, reedy 
and uneven cloth will be produced. Oil should not be 
placed on these bars, however, as it is apt to stain the 
warp. Extra heddles and drop wires are sometimes ap- 
plied by breaking open the slot and slipping them into 
position. These always should be removed when drawing 
in a new warp, as they may catch on other drop wires 
and interfere with proper action. 

Occasionally, a set of drop wires or steel heddles will 
become magnetized, which makes trouble by causing the 
individual heddles to stick together. This prevents the 



COTTON WEAVING 293 

formation of clear sheds and interferes with the fall of 
the heddle or detector if a warp end breaks. The diffi- 
culty is remedied by having the heddles demagnetized 
by passing them through an electrical coil. 

Slack warp threads often cause considerable annoy- 
ance, the loom being stopped repeatedly and the weaver 
being unable to find a broken warp thread. This is due 
to the slackness of the thread allowing the detector to 
fall just low enough to engage with the feeler bar. 
Sometimes this trouble is due to the whole warp being 
woven too slack but more often it is only one thread 
or a group of threads that gives difficulty. Occasionally, 
the stop-motion girt or box plates are not in the correct 
position relative to the whip roll. In some fancy 
weaves, certain ends do not interlace with the filling as 
frequently as other ends and, hence, tend to become 
slack. As such threads are not liable to become broken 
on account of their slackness, it is well not to drav/ 
them through detectors of the stop-motion. Large spooler 
knots with long tails often cause excessive warp break- 
age and if automatic knot tiers are not employed, it is 
desirable to have spooler tenders tie a weaver's knot 
instead of the customary overhand knot. 

When a cotton-harness type of warp stop-motion is 
used and extra drop wires employed, the warps should be 
sized a trifle more heavily in order to give the yarn the 
extra strength required to withstand the additional 
chafing and wear. This is not necessary in the case of 
the steel-harness stop-motion. 

Speed of Northrop Looms.— The speed at which Nor- 
throp looms can be run and the power required to drive 
them depend largely on the width, weight, and character 
of the loom and the weight and construction of the fabric 
being woven. The filling-replenishing devices are capa- 
ble of operating at any speed at which it is practicable 
to run the loom. Excessive speed causes a large increase 
in the number of breakages of warp yarn, and the loom 
is stopped so often to tie in broken ends that any gain 
made by increased speed is apt to be more than offset. 



294 COTTON-MILL PLANNING 



COTTON-MILL PLANNING 

To explain the method of planning the layout of a mill, a 
standard cotton mill will be taken as an illustration, and the 
details of the machinery equipment worked out with reference 
to this particular type of mill. Hence, it will be assumed that 
it is required to lay out the machinery for a mill to make 4-yd. 
goods, 39 in. wide, 28s warp and 36s filling, 72 sley, and 80 
picks to the inch. It will be assumed, also, that 10,000 spindles 
have been decided on as the size of the mill. 

Organization. — Two important matters must be figured out: 
(1) The organization of the miU in order to produce the line 
of goods; (2) the machinery needed to supply 10,000 spindles 
and to take care of the product of these spindles and manu- 
facture it into cloth. In mill engineering, the term organization 
is usually applied to the program, or list, of the weights of the 
product at each machine and the drafts and doublings necessary 
to produce these results, the whole organization being calcu- 
lated closely enough so that, after making due allowances for 
waste, it will show the weight, hank, or number delivered, 
from the weight of lap in the picker room, to the weight of the 
cloth desired. 

The counts of the warp yam to be made in this case are 
already known as 28s and that of the filling as 36s; and for 
making these yams, a mill usually has the following processes: 
Bale breaker, automatic feeder and opener, breaker picker, 
intermediate picker, finisher picker, one process of carding, 
three processes of drawing, no combing, and three processes of 
fly frames (slubber, intermediate, and roving). Then follow 
spinning, spooling, warping, slashing, drawing in, ■s^'eaving, 
sewing, cloth brushing, folding, and baling. 

For the counts of yam to be spun, the lap from the finisher 
picker should weigh from 12 to 14 oz. per yd.; in this case a 
13 oz. lap will be taken for the purpose of illustration. The 
number of processes between the lap and the yam being known, 
the hank of the 13 oz. lap must be ascertained and the attenu- 
ation between the lap and the yam so distributed that the 
yam will gradually be drawn finer at each process with the least 



COTTON-MILL PLANNING 295 

detriment to the fiber and with a maximum of production. 
Before this can be decided, however, the number of doublings to 
be made at each process must be known. It is usually under- 
stood that at the drawing frames in a mill spinning yams of 
medium counts there are 6 doublings at each process, with 
the draft approximately the same. It is also a general custom 
to have no doubling at the slubbing frames but to have 2 ends 
up at the interrnediate frames, 2 ends at the roving frames, 
and generally 2 ends at the spinning frames; that is, yams of 
these counts are usually spun from double roving. There 
is, of course, no doubling in a card, and the card draft is gener- 
ally about 100. 

A 13-oz. lap is .00146 hank, and weighs 5,687^ gr. to the yard. 
This, when operated on by a 100 draft at the card, gives a 
56.87-gr. sliver, but as there is at least 3% of waste at the card, 
the actual weight of the sliver delivered will not exceed 55 gr. 
This sliver, after passing through the drawing frames with a 
doubling of 6 at each delivery and the customary draft of 
6, will still remain a 55-gr. sliver, or .151-hank, since if the 
doublings equal the draft the weight of the sliver v/ill remain 
unchanged. 

At the slubber there is only 1 end up, but at the intermediate 
frame there are 2 doublings, also 2 at the roving frame and 2 at 
the spinning frame. An arrangement of drafts for the four 
processes following the third drawing process must therefore 
be found 'that will reduce the .151-hank sliver delivered by 
the third drawing frame to a 36s yam with the above doublings. 
A somewhat elastic rule used by mill engineers is to have the 
drafts in the processes between the third drawing frame and 
the spinning frame about 4, 5, 6, and 12, respectively, increasing 
or decreasing each factor slightly, as may be necessary, to 
obtain the exact total draft required to produce yam of the 
required counts. Arranging a series of drafts in accordance 
with this rule, drafts of 4.5 in the slubber, 5.5 in the inter- 
mediate frame, 6.5 in the roving frame, and 12 in the spinning 
frame may be selected as practical drafts, which, as shown 
by the following explanation, will give the desired attentia- 
tion of the roving necessary to produce a 36s yam from . the 
spinning frame. 



296 ' COTTON-MILL PLANNING 

Adopting these drafts and ignoring the question of waste 
at each process, as the amount of waste is slight, the hank 
of the slubbing will be .68, which is determined by multi- 
plying .151 by 4.5 (the draft), which equals .679, or prac- 
tically .68. The intermediate frame will deliver a 1.87 hank 
roving, which is determined by multiplying .68-hank slubbing 
by 5.5 and dividing the result thus obtained by 2 (the niimber 
of doublings). The hank of the roving from which the yarn 
is spun will be 6, determined by multiplying 1.87-hank roving 
from the intermediate frame by 6.5 and dividing the result 
thus obtained by 2, which equals 6.077-, or in round numbers 
6-hank. The counts of the yam will be 36s, determined by 
multiplying 6-hank roving by 12 and dividing the result thus 
obtained by 2. 

The above arrangement provides for the production of the 

filling yam, but the warp yam, which is to be 28s cotmts, 

can be made from the same hank roving as the filling yam 

by reducing the draft in the spinning frame; although a more 

satisfactory yam could be made from slightly coarser roving, 

for convenience in the mill the same hank roving is often 

used. In this case the draft at the warp spinning frames will 

be 9.3, determined by multiplying the number of the yam by 

the number of doublings and dividing by the hank roving, as 

28X2 

follows: -=9.3, draft. 

6 

Summary. — The complete organization is shown in the 
following summary: Finisher picker, 13-oz. lap, .00146 hank; 
cards, draft 100, 3% loss in waste, 55-gr. sliver, or .151 hank; 
first drawing frame, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; second 
drawing fraaiie, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; third drawing 
frame, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; slubbers, draft 4.5, 
no doublings, hank .68; intermediate fly frames, draft 5.5, 
doublings 2, hank 1.87; roving frames, draft 6.5, doublings 2, 
hank 6.07; warp spinning frames, draft 9.3, doublings 2, counts 
28s; filling spinning frames, draft 12, doublings 2, counts 36s. 

Machinery Equipment. — In order to determine the number of 
preparatory machines necessary, the number of spindles to 
be supplied must be known, in this case 10,000. The produce 
tion of a warp spinning frame on 28s yam is slightly in excess 



COTTON-MILL PLANNING 297 

of that of a filling frame on 36s, but as the goods to be produced 
contain a slightly greater weight of warp than of filling yarn, 
it will be assumed that 5,000 spindles are to be operated on 
warp yam and 5,000 on filling yam. 

The table on page 189 gives the production of warp spinning 
frames per spindle per day, making suitable allowances for all 
stoppages for doffing, oiling, cleaning, etc.; the table on page 
190 gives the production of filling spinning frames. Referring 
to these tables, the production of a warp spinning frame on 
28s yam is .244 lb. per spindle per day, which equals 1,220 lb. 
per day for 5,000 spindles. The production of a filling spin- 
ning frame on 36s yam is given as .194 lb. per spindle per day, 
which equals 970 lb. per day for 5,000 spindles, making a 
total production of warp and filling yam of 2,190 lb. per day. 
Considering a week to consist of 6 full days, for convenience 
in calculation, this will give a total weekly production of 
13,140 lb. of yam. Allowing for 5% of waste in the various 
machines between the finisher picker and the spinning frames 
gives a total of 13,831 lb. (13,140^.95 = 13,831.578) of cotton 
that must be passed through the finisher picker per week, 
and allowing 5% more for waste in the picking processes will 
necessitate 14,559 lb. (13,381 -J- .95 = 14,558.947) being passed 
through the breaker picker per week. 

Considering first the nimiber of machines necessary in the 
preparatory processes, a bale breaker will handle 15,000 lb. 
of cotton per day of 10 hr., or 90,000 lb. per wk.; therefore, one 
bale breaker will be more than sufficient for a mill of this size. 
An automatic feeder and opener will handle 3,000 lb. per day 
of 10 hr., or 18,000 lb. per wk.; consequently, only one machine 
is necessary, since the mill is to consume only 14,559 lb. of 
cotton per wk. A breaker picker will handle 500 lb. per hr., 
which, allowing for the time consumed in cleaning, etc., will 
give a total production of about 25,000 lb. per wk., an amount 
more than sufficient to meet the needs of a 10,000-spindle 
mill; hence, one breaker picker is sufficient. Intermediate 
and finisher pickers produce about 12,500 lb. per wk., allowing 
from 6 to 10 hr. for cleaning. In this case about 14,500 lb. 
must be treated each week in the picker room and therefore 
one intermediate and one finisher picker will be barely sufficient 



298 COTTON-MILL PLANNING 

while two would be excessive; however, by reducing the time 
for cleaning to a mininitim, one intermediate picker and one 
finisher picker will produce good work in sufficient quantity. 

The number of cards required to deal with 13,831 lb. of cotton 
per week must next be determined, and in this considerable 
latitude is left to the mill engineer. It is assumed that the 
revolving fiat cards will be used, the production of which varies 
in different mills, from 300 lb. for very fine yams to 1,000 lb. 
per card per wk. for coarse yams. In this case, 28s and 36s 
yams are to be spun, and as 800 to 850 lb. per week is an appro- 
priate production for such yams, 17 cards will be required to 
card 13,831 lb. of cotton per week. 

Dealing next with the drawing frames, the front roll of the 

machine is usually If in. in diameter and makes about 360 

rev. per min. The speed of delivery of the machine, therefore, 

is 43.197 yd. per min., which is calculated as follows: 

360X1.375X3.1416 

= 43. 197 

36 

This result multiplied by the weight of the card sliver per 
yard, 55 gr., and by 3,600, the number of minutes per week, 
gives 8,553,006 gr. as the total number produced by one deliv- 
ery in a week. This divided by 7,000, the number of grains 
in 1 lb., gives nearly 1,222 lb., which divided into 13,831, the 
ntunber of pounds of cotton to be handled in a week, gives eleven 
deliveries as the number required. As drawing frames are 
usually built in sections of five or six deliveries, one first, 
sfecond, and third drawing frame, each containing two heads 
of six deliveries each, will answer the requirements and also 
make an allowance for stoppages. 

The next machine through which the cotton passes in the 
proper sequence of operations is the slubber. The hank of 
the slubbing, or roving from the slubber, as figured in the 
organization of the mill, is .68, and it will be assumed in this 
case that the production is at the rate of 15.86 lb. per da., 
or 95.16 lb. per wk., per spindle. This, divided into 13,831 lb., 
gives 145 slubber spindles as the number necessary. Slubber 
frames are built in various lengths, usually in multiples of 4, 
the shortest having 40 spindles and the longest 80; so in this case 
it would be best to have two slubbers, each with 72 spindles. 



COTTON-MILL PLANNING 299 

As 1.87-hank roving is to be produced, it will be assumed that 
the production of the intermediate frames will be 5.31 lb. per 
da. per spindle, or 31.86 lb. per wk. This amount divided into 
13,831 lb. gives 434 spindles, and as these intermediate frames 
are built in multiples of 6, five frames of 90 spindles each will 
be required. 

Relative to the roving frames it will be considered that the 
production for a 6-hank roving is shown as 1.23 lb., per da., or 
7.38 lb. per wk., which when divided into 13,831 gives 1,874 
spindles. Fourteen frames of 136 spindles each would be 
most suitable. 

Considering next the number of spinning frames, the number 
of spindles has already been decided on as 10,000. Spinning 
fram.es are usually built in sections of 8 spindles, and a frame of 
about 208 spindles and of the regular gauge is usually preferred. 
Therefore, in this case 48 frames, each with 208 spindles, would 
be used, giving a total of 9,984 spindles in the mill. 

After the spinning, the filling yarn is ready for the loom; 
but the warp yam must pass through several processes before 
it is ready for weaving. The first machine is the spooler. 
■Considering the spindle speed of this machine as 825 rev. per 
min., 20 lb. per spindle per wk. may be taken as an average 
production. The production of warp yarn was previously 
calculated as 1,220 lb. per day, or 7,320 lb. per week; therefore, 
dividing 20 into 7,320 gives 366 spooler spindles necessary. 
Spoolers are built in various lengths, for instance, 80, 100, 
and 120 spindles. In this case four spoolers of 100 spindles 
each will be necessary. 

The production of warpers is given in the table on page 219, 
and for 28s yam with 440 ends on a beam is 2,425 lb. per wk. 
Dividing this into 7,320, the number of pounds of warp yarn 
produced per wk. gives three warpers to be installed. 

A slasher will prepare the warps for about 500 looms weaving 
cloth similar to that decided on as the product of this mill. 
In a mill of this size, since it is very improbable that more than 
500 looms will be operated one slasher may be asstuned to 
be all that is necessary. 

Dealing now with the weaving, it is first necessary to find 
the production per week of a loom weaving goods having 80 



300 



COTTON -MILL PLANNING 



picks per in. In this case it is assumed that the looms 

will run 185 picks per niin.; therefore, the production of a loom 

per week will be 208.125 yd., as shown by the following cal- 

185X3,600 

culation: = 231.25. 10% ot 231.25 is equal to 

80X36 

23.125; therefore, 231,25-23.125 = 208.125 yd. 

MACHINES AND FLOOR SPACE FOR A 10,000- 
SPINDLE MILL 



Number of Machines 



Floor Space 



1 bale breaker 

1 automatic feeder and opener 

1 breaker picker 

1 intermediate picker 

1 finisher picker 

17 cards . . . 

1 first drawing frame, two heads of 

six deliveries 

1 second drawing frame, two heads 

of six deliveries 

1 third drawing frame, two heads of 
six deliveries 

2 slubbers, 72 spindles 

5 intermediates, 90 spindles 

14 roving frames, 136 spindles 

48 spinning frames, 208 spindles . . . 
4 spoolers, 100 spindles 

3 warpers 

1 slasher 

266 looms 

1 sewing and rollmg machine 

1 brusher 

1 folder 

1 baling press 



9' 9"X7' 
10' 6"X6' 6" 
17' 7"X6' 6" 
16' X 6' 8" 
16'X6'8" 

9' 10" X 5' 2" each 

10'10"X3'4"perhead 

10' 10" X 3' 4" per head 

10' 10"X3'4"per head 
31' 8"X3'2"each 
29' 5"X3' 1" each 
32' 11"X2' 11" each 
25' 11"X3' 3" each 
21' 3"X4' each 
18' X 8' each 
38' X 8' 
16'X11' 10" for 4 looms 

4'X2'9" 
10' X 4' 
10' X 4' 

4' 9"X3' 



The production of warp yam per day is 1,220 lb., or 7,320 lb. 
per wk., to which must be added 10% to allow for the increased 
weight occasioned by the size, making 8,052 lb. of warp yam 
to be woven per week. 

The production of filling yam is 970 lb. per day, or 5,820 lb. 
per wk., which, added to the weight of the warp yam, gives a 
total production for the weave room of 13,872 lb. per wk. The 



COTTON-MILL PLANNING 3(^ 

weight of the cloth is 4 yd. per lb. ; therefore, the yards of cloth 
to be woven per week will be 4X 13,872 = 55,488 yd. Dividing 
this total yardage by the production of one loom (208.125 yd.) 
gives practically 266 looms as the niimber necessary for the 
weave room. 

In the cloth room, a miU of this size would require one sewing 
and rolling machine, one cloth brusher, one folding machine, 
and one baling press. 

The foregoing description shows how the equipment of 
machinery is determined so that the production from the 
machines at each process will almost exactly balance the 3,niount 
of material supplied to them from the preceding process or 
taken from them by a later process; therefore, so long as the 
mill is maintained on the class of goods for which it was origi- 
nally intended, there will be no idle machinery, neither will 
there be an oversupply of material, and thus the whole plant 
will be kept in constant operation with the largest possible out- 
put at the least possible expense. 

The accompanying table gives the complete list of machines 
for a 10,000-spindle mrU on 4-yd. goods made from 28s warp 
and 36s filling, together with the floor space occupied by each 
machine, from which can be determined the total floor space 
and size of the mill that would have to be erected to accom- 
modate this machinery. 



302 



COTTON DESIGNING 



COTTON DESIGNING 



ELEMENTS OF TEXTILE DESIGN 

The Weave. — All woven fabrics are constructed of two series 
of yams; namely, the warp, which is the system of parallel 
threads running lengthwise of the goods, and the filling, which 
is the system of parallel threads running across the cloth at 
right angles to the warp. By the weaving process the picks 
of the filling are interlaced with the ends of the warp so as to 
produce a woven fabric of a texture depending, to a great 
extent, on the method of interlacing. 




T«^; 



Fig. 1 



Plain Weave. — The simplest method of interlacing the warp 
and filling is by that system known as plain weave. Fig. 1 (a) 
is a diagrammatic view of a plain woven fabric in which one 
pick of filling is over all the odd-numbered ends of the warp 
and under all the even-numbered ends, while the next pick of 
filling interlaces with the warp ends in reverse order. 



COTTON DESIGNING 303 

Representation of Weave. — Fig. 1 also illustrates the method 
of representing a weave on design paper; (a) shows the way the 
ends and picks of the cloth are interlaced, and (6) shows the 
weave. Each vertical row of squares represents a warp end, 
and each horizontal row represents a pick of filling. The 
lines drawn from (a) to (6) show which warp end each vertical 
row of squares represents; the ends are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 
5, and 6, at the bottom. 

By following the ends from (o) to (&), it will be seen that 
when they are up, as shown in (a), the corresponding squares 
in (6) are filled in, and on the other hand when the ends are 
down, the corresponding squares in (&) are left blank. When 
the ends have been shown on design paper, the picks also have 
been shown, and consequently (&) shows where the filling is 
up and where down in the same manner as it shows where the 
warp is up and where down. That this is so may be seen by 
referring to (c), which is exactly the same as (&) except that 
in this case the lines ^re drav/n from the picks in (a) to the 
rows of squares in (c) that represent the respective picks. If 
the picks are followed from {a) to (c) in the same manner 
as the ends were followed from (o) to (&) , it will be seen that 
(c) shows the interfacings of the picks, {d) is a method of 
showing the interlacing of one pick of filling with the warp 
and represents the manner in which either of the picks h and d 
interlaces with the warp ends, the curved line showing the 
pick of filling and the circles, sections of the warp ends. 

Repeat of Weave. — ^Every weave is complete on a certain 
number of ends and the same, or a different, number of picks 
that have definite interlacings and that are arranged in a fixed 
order of sequence. The method of interweaving and the order 
of arrangement of all other ends and picks in the fabric are but 
repetitions; hence, these ends and picks constitute one repeat 
of the weave. Thus, it will be noted in Fig. 1 that the plain 
weave repeats on two ends and two picks. 

Drawing-in Draft. — Every end in the warp that interlaces 
with the filling differently from the others must be drawn 
through a separate harness in the loom, but every end in th© 
Warp that works in a manner similar to some other end may be 
drawn through the same harness as that other end, provided 



304 



COTTON DESIGNING 



that it is drawn in its regular order. Thus in the case of the 
plain weave, if every even-numbered end is drawn through 
one harness and every odd-numbered end is drawn through 
another harness and these two harnesses are made to rise and 
fall alternately, or first one and then the other is lifted, and a 
pick of filling passed through each opening, cloth similar to 
that shown in Fig. 1 (a) will be formed. 

The method, or order, of drawing each end of a weave 
through the loom harnesses is usually indicated on design paper 
by means of a draft, called the harness draft, or drawing-in 
draft. This is best indicated with figures, but may be shown 
I 234 56 78 ^^ "aeans of crosses, dots, etc. In 
Fig. 2, (a) shows the plain weave 
extended on 8 ends, and (b) shows 
the harness draft. The first end is 
drawn through the first harness, as 
shown in the harness draft (b) , and 
the second end, as it interlaces 
with the filling differently from the 
first, must be drawn through a 
separate harness, or the second, as 
shown; the third end in the weave 
works like the first and therefore 






-■-■ 


_■-■ 


1 1 


I 1 


1 1 


1 1 


(a) ■„■ 


■ 1 


-■-■ 


-■-■ 


■-■- 


■-■- 


-■ ■ 


1 1 


L. 1^ 


lUlU 


1 , 





2 2 2_2 



Cb) 



Fig. 2 

can be drawn through the same harness as the first end; 
the fourth end works like the second and is consequently 
drawn through the same harness as the second. The har- 
ness draft, therefore, is simply a draft showing the person 
.who draws in the warp ends through which harness each 
end of the warp is to be drawn, being so constructed that 
ends having the same interlacings are drawn on the same 
harness. Harness drafts are generally constructed for only 
one repeat of the weave, since all other ends are drawn in 
similarly to the ends in that repeat. Consequently, in making 
out the harness draft for the plain weave only the first two 
ends need be shown, since the first two ends in the har- 
ness draft. Fig. 2 (&), show the manner of drawing in all the 
ends of the warp. 

Chain Drafts. — After the harness draft has been made to 
show the method of drawing in the warp ends, a plan must be 



COTTON DESIGNING 



305 



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made to show how, or in what order, the harnesses must be 
lifted so that the ends drawn through them will interlace with 
the filling according to the desired weave, or in other words a 
plan showing which harnesses are to be raised and which 
lowered on each pick. This plan is known as the chain draft 
or pegging plan. The chain draft is indicated on design paper, 
each fiUed-in square indicating that a harness is raised, and 
each blank square showing that a harness is lowered. To make 
a chain draft from the weave and harness 
draft, commenc with the first end and copy 
the interfacings of each end in one repeat 
of the weave that is drawn in through a 
separate harness as indicated by the har- 
ness draft, placing these interlacings of the 
ends in the same relative position that the 
harnesses through which they are drawn 
occupy in the harness draft. 
Fig. 3 is one repeat of the 
weave shown by the dia- 
gram Fig. 1 (a) , and since the 
first end is drawn through the 
first harness, as shown in Fig. 
2 (&), the interlacings of the 
first end must be copied to show the man- 
ner in which this harness should be raised 
and lowered. The second end is drawn 
through the second harness; therefore, to 
show the workings of this harness the 
interlacings of this end must be copied. 
When this has been done it will be noticed 
that the chain draft is similar to the weave 
shown in Pig. 3; therefore, this figure can be used to indicate 
the chain draft as well as to show the weave. 

To illustrate further the method of obtaining the chain draft 
from the weave and harness draft, refer to Fig. 4, in which 
(a) represents one repeat of a weave; (b) shows the harness, 
or drawing-in draft; and (c) shows the chain draft. In (a), 
each vertical row of squares represents one end; each row of 
squares across the design paper, one pick; and each filled square. 



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OBinD 

nocsD 

DDOB! 
DDOO 

anan 
mnoa 



Fig. 3 



0) 

lonoBBBDn 

DDBBBDDD 
OBBBOOOO 

BBaoaoao 



BODOBDD 
__DaDBBDD 
OBBBOOOO 
OOBBBOgO 
OOOBBBDO 
■"OODBBDO 

"OODBDO 
OODDD 



8b: 
Bl 



nnno 

DODO 
DODO 
DODD 



DODD 
DODO 
OODD 
DDOa 
ODOO 

ooan 

DDOa 
OODO 



Fig. 4 



306 COTTON DESIGNING 

an end raised over a pick. In (&) , each vertical row of squares 
represents one end, the same as in (a) , but each row of squares 
across the design paper represents one harness, and each num- 
ber the harness through which that particular end is drawn. 
In (c), each vertical row of squares represents the working of 
one harness, or, in other words, the order of raising and lowering 
the harness, while each row across the design paper represents 
one pick, or one bar of the chain that is placed on the loom to 
govern the operation of the harnesses. 

To make a chain draft from a weave it is simply necessary 
to copy the interlacings of those ends that are drawn on separate 
harnesses. Therefore, in order to ascertain the number of ends 
that any chain draft will require it is only necessary to find the 
number of harnesses that the drawtng-in draft occupies. In 
Fig. 4 (b) , 6 harnesses are used, and thus only six vertical rows 
of squares, representing the 6 ends of the weave that have 
different interlacings, will be required for the chain draft. In 
copying the interlacings of those ends that are drawn on 
separate harnesses, since the first end is drawn through the 
first harness, the first harness shown in (c) is marked the 
same as the first end shown in (a). The second end is drawn 
through the second harness, and consequently the second har- 
ness shown in (c) is marked the same as the second end shown 
in (a). This method is continued with the first 6 ends, all of 
which are drawn through separate harnesses. The seventh 
end of the weave is drawn through the third harness, but since 
the working of this harness has already been set down, it must 
not be marked again. The same can be said of the rest of the 
ends, all of which work in a manner similar to some one of the 
first 6 ends. Therefore, the chain draft is complete as shown 
in (c). 

Standard Types of Drawing-in Drafts. — The simplest method 
of drawing the warp ends through the harnesses is that known 
as the straight draft, which may be defined as a draft in which 
the ends are drawn through the harnesses in regular order 
from front to back. To illustrate this, suppose that a weave 
occupied 10 harnesses and that the ends were drawn straight 
from the front harness to the back harness. Then the first end 
would be drawn through the first harness, the second end 



COTTON DESIGNING 



207 



through the second harness, the third end through the third 
harness, and so on, ending with the tenth end, which would 
be drawn through the tenth harness. The draft would then 
commence another repeat with the first harness again, and the 
nest, or eleventh, end would be drawn through that harness, 
the twelfth end would be drawn through the second harness, 
and so on. 

Another method of drawing in warps is known as the center, 
or point, draft. In regular point drafts, the ends are drawn 
from the front to the back harness and then the next end, 
instead of being drawn on the front harness as in the straight 
draft, is drawn through the next to the back harness and the 



aDGDnnnd) 
QnaDaamn 
aaanafSDa 

naDDSDDD 

DDoainDaa 
DainnaDD 
DiaaDnnDD 
EDanangp 



c-nnnaa 
aDDDDn 
DEDnnp 
anonnn 
oaosiaa 
DDDngia 
ananna 



DDDnnnmn 
DDnaDSJDa 
DDDDsann 

Dasnnnan 
DHDnnnna 
maaaaaDQ] 



nanaamaa 
aDDDisaDa 

naDHDDDD 
DnaJDDDDD 

DODDnann 
maaoaaam 
nnagnnffiD 



nanamnnn 

DDiSlDDaOD 

DBiDaDDaaj 
snanDDDD 
nnnannan 
annnaaaD 



□□ 
aa 
aa 
aa 
ma 
am 

gg 



Fig. 5 



Fig. 6 



ends then drawn in regularly from back to front. Pig. 5 is an 
illustration of a regular point draft on 8 harnesses. 

Another type of point draft, illustrated in Fig. 6, is known 
as the irregular point draft. In these drafts the ends are 
drawn through the harnesses straight for a certain number of 
times and then reversed as in a regular point draft. 



nnannnan 
annanDDD 



DaGDaDDD 

aooaaama 
naaaamam 

aDDDaDDD 
DDDEDDDn 
DaSinDDDD 
nSDDDDaD 

maaoaaaa 



nnnnnnniffl 

aDDDDQBE 



nanaasiDn 
nnnaBnnn 
DDDEianan 
maBDnnna 

DElDDDnnD 
aDDDDDDa 

GDnnnDDn 

DDDDDDDD 



nannnnnn 

SinDDaDDD 



DsinnnDaD 
DDEiDnanD 
DDDiBannEi 

DDDDSlDaD 

nnnnnsaa 
anGDDnnn 

GGGGGaaD 

aDGGaaDD 



DGGGaDDG 
OQaOQQGG 



GGGGGGGG 
fflGGGGOaa 
GSGGGGGG 

aasGaaaa 

GGGSlGaaG 

GGaaoaaG 

GGGGGSGIU 

naaaaamD 



nannnaanpn 



GGGGQaaa 



GGGGGGGa 
GGGGGGGG 

aaaaGGGG 

GGGGOaaG 

GsiGaaaaai 
aasiGGasia 
aanoGiuaa 
ggggmaga 



ga 
aa 
aa 
aa 

GG 
GO 

ma 
am 
og 



Fig. 7 



Still another type of irregular point draft is illustrated in 
Fig. 7. The method adopted in this case is that of drawing the 
ends straight for a certain number of harnesses and then revers- 
ing, but only running the ends for a few harnesses, when they 
are again run straight and again reversed, etc. 



308 



COTTON DESIGNING 



In the method of drawing in the warp ends known as the 
angled draft they are drawn straight for a certain number of 
harnesses and then reversed, but instead of the reversing 
starting with the next to the back 
harness as in the point draft, it is 
started on an intermediate harness, 
generally half way between the first 
and last harnesses, but depending 
somewhat on the chain draft that 
is to be used. Fig. 8 shows an 
angled draft on 8 harnesses arranged in this manner. 

The skip draft may be considered as a straight draft drawn 
in sections with one or more harnesses skipped between the 
sections. Fig. 9 shows a skip draft on 4 harnesses in which 
the first section of 4 ends is drawn in straight; then 1 harness 
is skipped and the next section of 4 ends drawn straight, then 



nnnnaDDEi 
ODDDDnan 

DDDDDlBaD 

oaansnna 
annEDDDn 
DDsinDnDn 
DiDDnnDan 
maDaDDaD 



nnnaiBDDD 
DnnanmDa 
annnnnisD 
DanaDnDHi 

nsjDDDaaD 
DDmaaana 
nnamnnnn 



Fig. 8 



Innnainnaia nfflanmana 
DDEinasiDD oonaaDDBi 
DEnnoDDa nnninDnEiD 
mapaaDDOO aaiiiDaiiiaa 



Fig. 9 



onnDnisinn 
DDDDisnan 
DDDSinnnii] 
DQSinnnsiD 
atanDDDDD 

mDDDDDDD 



nfflnnoEinaina 



SaDDEiaDD 

aannanan 
QDDDanDa 
DDDEianntii 
oprnDDDma 



no 

DD 



Fig. 10 



noisnn 

DDDDai 
DODDn 
DDDEia 



Fig. 11 



another harness skipped and the next section drawn in straight, 
and so on. In Fig. 10, a skip draft on 6 harnesses is shown in 
which 2 harnesses are skipped between the sections. 

Satin drafts are really adaptations of the skip-draft principle 
in which harnesses are skipped between the ends instead of 
between sections of ends. Thus in the 5-hamess satin draft 
shown in Fig. 11, the first end is drawn in on the first harness; 
the second end is drawn in on the third harness, 
skipping the second harness; the third end is 
drawn in on the fifth harness, skipping the fourth 
harness; the fourth end is drawn in on the second 
harness, skipping the first harness; and the fifth 
is drawTi in on the fourth harness, skipping the 
third harness. In this satin draft only 1 harness 
is skipped between the ends, but often more than one harness 
is skipped. For instance, in the 8-end satin draft shown in 
Fig. 12, 2 harnesses are skipped between the ends. 



DDanDHinD 
DDmanaoD 

DDDDDaaE) 

Dnnnsnnn 
DHinaDnnD 

DDDDnDIIia 

DDDiannDD 



Fig. 12 



COTTON DESIGNINC 



309 



nnnnaanninnnfET 
DnanDanninnQjia 



annnnnnn 
ngaDDDnn 



DDDnaDDIB 

Dannnama 

DDDDDElDn 
DDDDSIDDD 

DDDianDaD 

DDSaDDDD 
DmaDDDDD 

maDDDDDn 



DOSDn 
[3DDa 



A section draft may consist of any one or more of the fore- 
going styles of drafts arranged so as to be repeated in sections 
throughout the width of the cloth. 
Thus, Fig. 13 shows a section draft on 
12 harnesses, and as indicated by the 
brackets the method of drawing in the first 
section of 4 ends is to be repeated three 
times, and the method of drawing in the 
second and third sections of 4 ends is to be 
repeated the same number of times. Thus, 
it will be seen that this is really a short method 
of indicating a comparatively large draft, since if this draft 
were extended fully as indicated, it would occupy 36 ends, 
as shown in Fig. 14. This section draft is simply an amal- 



DDDa 

naan 
DDna 

DDDD 

DDDa 

anna 
oaaa 
Doaa 



3X 3X 3X 

Fig. 13 



□DDnnnna 
naaanaaa 
Daaaoaaa 
aaaaaaan 



aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaan 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa, 
aaamaaaai 
aamaaaaa 
amooamoD 
moaamaaD 



aaananaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaoaaaag 



aaaaaaam 
aaaaaama 
aaaaaisaa 
aaaamaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aasaaaaa 
aiaaaaoaa 
mgggoaga 



naonannn 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaooo 



aaaiaaaacs) 
aamaaama 
asaaamaa 
(aaaasaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaoDoo 
aaoaoaoa 
anaoaaaa 



aaOEaoDL 
aaoaaaBiia 
ansaaaiiaa 
maaaisaaa 



aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaoD 
oaaaaooa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aggaaaao 



□aaa. 
aamio 
omaa 
sjaaa 



aaao 
aaaa 
aaan 
aaaa 
aaaa 
aaan 
aaan 
aaan 



Fig. 14 

gamation of straight drafts in sections, but it is not necessary 
to use straight drafts, since angled, skip, or satin drafts may be 
extended in sections in the same manner. 



TWILLED WEAVES 

In the plain weave, each end is alternately raised and lowered, 
but in a twill the warp ends are so raised that the warp and filling 
floats form diagonal lines across the cloth, known as twill lines. 
In a twill each warp end must be either over or under the 
filling for at least 2 picks in succession and at least 2 successive 
warp ends must be raised or lowered on each pick, in order to 
make the twill line across the cloth. On this account at least 
3 harnesses are necessary to weave a twill, or in other words 
three is the smallest niimber of harnesses on which a twill 




310 COTTON DESIGNING 

effect can be formed in the cloth. Thus, the 3-harness, or 
prunelle, twill, as it is called, is the simplest twill that can be 
made. 

A weave may be warp flush, filling flush, or equally flush, 
depending on whether a preponderance of warp or filling or aji 
equal amount of each is brought to the face of the cloth; thus, 
Fig. 1 (a) is a warp-flush prunelle twill, twilled to the right, and 
Fig. 1 (b) is the same weave twilled 
to the left. Fig. 1 (c) shows a filling- 
flush prunelle twilled to the right, and 
Fig. 1 (d) shows a filling-flush prunelle 
twilled to the left. A cloth woven 
with a warp-flush weave shows a fiUing-flush weave on the back, 
and if woven with a filling-flush weave shows a warp-flush 
weave on the back. 

Regular twills are those that run in regular order; it is, 
therefore, simply necessary to know the interlacing of any one 
end or pick, say the first, of a regular twill in order to show the 
entire weave on design paper. 

The interlacings of the first end or pick of any regular twill 
are conveniently shown by writing numbers above and below 
a horizontal line. Fig. 2 shows one repeat of 
the ^^^ regular twill. A rule for making any 
regular twill when the interlacings of the first pick 
are given is as follows: 

Rule. — Mark on the flrst pick of the weave the 



_DODBaDB 
DDaHDQHB 
DDBDDHSD 
DBDDHBDQ 
■aDBIHDDQ 
DDBIBDnnB 
DBBDaDHD 



ends that are to he lifted on that pick; then above on FiG. 2 
the second pick place similar marks, moving them one square to 
the right if the twill is to run to the right, or one square to the left 
if the twill is to run to the left. Proceed with each pick in the same 
■way, moving one to the right or left, as the case may be, until there 
are as many picks as ends. 

Angle of Twills. — The angle of the twill is affected: (1) by 
the manner in which the ends and picks interlace; (2) by the 
relative number of ends and picks per inch. 

Fig. 3 illustrates the method of running up twill lines on 
design paper so as to form different angles. 

A regfular 45° twill weave forms a 45° twill in the fabric 
only when the cloth contains an equal number of ends and 



COTTON DESIGNING 



311 



picks per inch. Increasing the picks per inch or decreasing 
the ends per inch decreases the angle of the twill; decreasing 
the picks or increasing the ends increases the angle. 

Weaves in which the angle of the twill is greater than 
45 degrees are called upright twills, and those in which 
76° 72° 63° 



DDDDBDDD 
DDDDBDDD 
DDDDBDnD 
DDDDBDOa 
DDDBDDDa 
DDDBODDD 
DDDHDDDD 

paaiDgar 



DDHDanDD 
DHDDDDDD 
DBDDDDDa 
DHDDDDDD 

-naaaDDD 

DDDDDDH 

annDDDH 

DDDDaaHD 



DDBDDDD: 

DDBDDDD-- 

DDBDDDBD 

DDBDDDBD 

DBDDDDBO 

DBDaaBDD 

DBDDDBDO 

DBDDDBDD 



iDDDBDDD 

DDDBDDD 

IDDDBDDD 

IDDBDDDD 

DDDBDDDD 

DDDBDDD'^ 

DDBDDDD 

DDBDDDBD 



DDBDDDBD 
DBDDDBDD 
DBDDDBDD 
DBDDBDDD 
BDDDBDDD 
BDDBDDDD 
BDDBDDDD 
DDBDDDDD 



DDBDDDDL 

DBDDDDBD 

DBDDDBDD 

BDDDBDDD 

BDDBDDDD 

DDBDDDDD 

DBDDDDrr 

"DODBBDD 



DDBBDDDD 

BBDDDDDD 

DDDDDDI 

DDDBBBDD 

BBBDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDBB"- 

BBBBODDD 



aDBDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
"DDDDDDD 
DDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 



GaDDDDBD 
GDDDDBDD 
DDDDDBDD 
DDDDBDDD 
DDDDBDDD 
DDDBDDDD 
DDDBDDDD 
DDBDDDDD 



DDBDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
"DDDDDDD 
_DDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 



DDDDDDQB 
DDDDDDBD 
DDDDDBDD 
DDDDBDDD 
DDDBDDDD 
DDBDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
""DDDDDDD 



DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDI 

DDDDBBDD 

DDBBDDDD 

BBDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDT 



DDDDBBBG 

OBBBDDDD 

BDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDr 

BBBBDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 



DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 



DDDDDDD 
DDDDDDBD 
DDDDDBDD 
DDDDBDDD 
DDDBDDDD 
DDBDDDDD 
DBDDDDDD 
DDDDDDD 



DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDBB 
DDDDBBDD 



DDBBDDDD 
BBDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
DDDDDDDD 
GDDDDBBB 
OGBSIBDDD 
BBDDDDDD 



DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDBB 

BBBBDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

DDDDDDDD 

aaDQDQaa, 



45" 



27C 



18^ 



14° 



Fig. 3 

the angle of the twill is less than 45 degrees are desig« 
nated as oblique, or reclining, twills. Upright twills and 
iancy diagonal weaves, forming twill lines with angles 
greater than 45 degrees are used in many types of fabrics. 
Oblique, or reclining, twills are not so frequently em- 
ployed, but are used in special cases. 



312 



COTTON DESIGNING 



To find the twill angle that will be formed in a fabric, the 
following method may be applied: 
Let jE = ends in one repeat of weave; 
P = picks in one repeat of weave; 
e = ends per inch in cloth; 
i) = picks per inch in cloth; 
ian=tangent of angle of twill in fabric; 
cot = cotangent of angle of twill in fabric. 



Then, 



And 



Ep 
Pe 



cot-- 



Example.— A diagonal, or twill, weave that repeats 
on 4S ends and 60 picks is to be used in a fabric that 
will be woven with 72 ends and 54 picks per inch. 
What will be the angle of the twill in the cloth? 
60X72 



Solution. — ■ tan = 



And 



cot = 



48X54. 
48X54 



= 1.6666 



= .60000 



60X72 

■ LJI— Jl-J 

^^j Reference to a table of natural tangents and 

cotangents indicates that 1.6666 is the tangent and 

■■Di .60000 the cotangent of an angle of 59° 2' -which, 

!!■■■ therefore, is the angle of the twill in the fabric men- 

(^) tioned in the question. 

DDDDB Shrinkage or stretch in the length, or in the direc- 
dqSdd ■''^o^ o^ *^^ warp, or contraction in the width in the 
■'ddd direction of the filUng, in any finishing process, will 

(fj affect the twill angle of a fabric in exact accordance 
■■■■D ^^^^ ^^® resulting change in the number of ends or 
J Jgy jl picks per inch. 
'■■■■ Standard Twills. — Several twills that are con- 

fg) stantly used in the construction of the more common 

f-TQ 4 fabrics are known by definite names. Among them 

are the filling-flush prunelle. Fig. 4 (a); the warp- 

f.ush prunelle. Fig. 4 (b); the cassimere. Fig. 4 (c); 

the filling-flush crow. Fig. 4 (d); the warp-flush crow. 

Fig. 4 (e); the filling-flush Albert twill. Fig. 4 (/); the warp- 
fMsh Albert twill. Fig. 4 (g); the filling-flush broken ctq-u. 



COTTON DESIGNING 



313 



Fig. 5 (o) ; the warp-flush broken crow. Fig. 5 (6) ; the Venetian 
twill, Fig. 5 (c); and the Mayo, or Campbell, twill. Fig. 5 (d). 
The weaves shown in Fig. 5 are not regular twill weaves. 

Fancy Twills. — In addition to the regular 45° 
twills there are many other twill weaves that 
are known as fancy twills. These weaves gen- 
erally consist of a regular twill 
weave between the twill lines 
of which are placed sometimes 



a 



IDDBO 
DDDB 
DBOa 
■DDD 

(a) 

IHBOI 
■■r 
■ai 

DBBatf 
DBaBB 
BBDBQ 
BDBBD 
BDBDB 



(C} 



DDBaOBBB 


BaDBDDBB 


BaDBBBDD 


aBODBBBO 


DBBBDDBD 


DDBBBDDB 


BBaDBDDB 


BBBDDBaU 



BBBDBaDI 

BBDDBBDD 

BDBDDBBa 

DDBBOaBB 

BaDBBDDB 

BBDDBBQD 

DBBOOBBa 

aaBBDQBD 



BaOBBDOB 
BBODBaBB 
DBBDOBBB 
QDBDBBBB 
BODBBBBD 
BOBBBBOD 
aBBBBOBD 
" IBBDDBB 



DDBBDai 
BDaBDBI 
DBBODBBI 
DDBOBBBI 
nDDBBBBD 
JDBBBBaa 
OBBBBOBD 
BBDDr~ 



IBBOBaOB 
IBDDBBDQ 
jaBDOBBD 
DDBBOaBB 
"DDBBDDB 
BDDBBaO 
DBBQQBBD 
DDBBDDBa 



(d) 

Fig. 5 



BBDBDaaB 


BDBDBDBB 


DDDBDBBB 


BBaDBBBQ 


DBOBBBOB 


■OBBBDOB 


DBBBDBaa 


BBBDBDBD 


BBDDDBDB 


BOBBDOBB 


DBDBQBBB 


OBBaBBBD 


aOOBBBOB 


BDBBBDBD 


aBBBDDDB 


BBBDBBDD 


BBDBDBDB 


BODBBOBB 


DBDOaBBB 


BDBDBBBD 


DBDBBBan 


DDBBBDBB 


DBBBaBOB 


BBBODBBO 



Fig. 6 



Fig. 7 



DDBBnDBB 
"DHnBDQB 
HBaaBBDD 
DBDBaBBa 
DDBaDDBB 
DBBaDBDB 
BBDaBBDD 
BQOBBDBD 



DDBBODBB 
BDBnBDDB 
BBDDBBaa 
OBaBOBBD 
DDBBODBB 
DBBDDBDB 
"BDDBBDD 
DDBBOBD 



GDBBDDBI 
BGBDBDDI 
BBDDBBDD 
DBDBDBBD 
DDBBDDI 
DBBDOBDB 
" BDOBBDD 
DOBBGBD 



other twills running in the opposite direction, sometimes small 
spots, and sometimes other small weaves. Figs. 6 and 7 are 
twill weaves of this type. 

Entwining Twills, — Twills of the 
entwining type are constructed from 
regular twills by rtmning sections of 
twill lines both to the right and to the 
left so that each section meets other 
sections at right angles. As the name 
indicates, the effects produced by these 
twills have an entwined or interlaced 
appearance; the more perfect ones are 
obtained when the separate sections 
are composed of equally flushed twills, 
although in some cases unequally flushed twills give good 
results. Fig. 8 shows an entwining twill constructed by 
running two twill lines of the cassimere to the right and two 
to the left, the weave repeating on 8 ends and 8 picks. 



DDBBDDB 
BDBGBDDi 
BBDDBBDD 
DBDBDBBD 
GDBBDDBB 
DBBDDBDB 
"BDDBBDD 
DDBBDBD 



Fig. 8 



314 



COTTON DESIGNING 



aaammmoo 
oammmamo 
oaHaaHH 



m3umsM2u 



gpai 



DHBCDaaa 
oaaoHHig 
aaommmaa 
mommmooQ 
ammmaoau 
■■■DoaBa 

TPDDDBCr 
IGDDBBBD 



DBBBDSgaa 

acmmmnmii 

DDDBBBQ^ 
"OaDBBBD 

iBagoBBr 
BBaaoBi 

aBBBOaOL 
^DBBBODD 



ioalaBBB 
nmanmwSa 

""iDBBBDD 
aaBBBDDD 
DBBBODOB 
BDBDaOBB 
BBOaDBBB 
BBBOBBBD 



^'^DBBBOa 
□^DDBBBD 

DBBr 

BDBI 

DBBBaDDL 
IBBODDBD 
IBDODBBB 

iggoBBio 



OBBBOBO^ 
DaBBBQD^ 
QOOBBBD'^ 
BODDBBBa 
— IDDDBB" 

IBDDOB 

GBBBDOOL 
DOBBBDaa 



Fancy entwining-twill effects are obtained by omitting one or 
more twill lines from each section and continuing the remaining 
twill lines of each section until they meet those of the other 
section. By this means two blank spaces are made in the 
weave, in which other weaves may be inserted. A weave of 
this character is shown in Fig. 9. 

Curved Twills. — Curved twiUs are those in which the twill 
lines have a wavy, or curved, nature instead of being perfectly 
straight as in an ordinary twill weave. Fig. 10 (c) shows 
several repeats of a curved twill constructed with the chain 
draft shown in Fig. 10 (6) and the drawing-in draft Fig. 10 (c). 
The first end of the effect 
in Fig. 10 (c) is like the 
first end of Fig. 10 (&); 
the second end is Uke the 
fourth end; the third, 
like the seventh; the 
fourth, hke the tenth; 
and so on, each end of 
Fig. 10 (fe) being taken in 
the order indicated by the 
drawing-in shaft in 
Fig. 10 (c). 

Skip Twills.— Skip 
twills are a type of broken 
twill effects formed by a FiG. 9 

skip drawing-in draft and a regular twill weave as a chain 
draft. The draft is so constructed that when the harnesses 
are skipped, the end in the harness just before the skip 
will rise and fall exactly opposite to the next end; by this 
means a broken effect is formed in the cloth. In Fig. 11 (a) 
is shown a skip twill that is made with the 6-end regular twill 
^5, Fig. 11 (c), as a chain draft and the skip drawing-in draft 
shown in Fig. 11 (6). 

Pointed Twills. — ^Another class of twill weaves obtained by 
means of the harness draft includes those weaves obtained by 
point drafts, which form wave effects across the cloth. These 
effects are also frequently spoken of as herring bones, or her^ 
ring-bone stripes, because the radiating twill lines suggest the 



DDQI 

nnlBBL. _ 
jmmmnseon 

BBBDiiaDK 
BBOBWDBB 

mr 



BDOgOL 



3SBB DJ 



He 
■ 



_ ^a 

8SDDKDB1 — 



BB 



COTTON DESIGNING 



315 



radiating bones of a fish's backbone. To make a pointed, or 
wave, effect with the 45° twill shown in Fig. 12 (o) as the chain 




■Ddannaa 

DDBaDBBH 

aaaDBBBO 

BBDBBBaO 
BOaBBBDB 
DOBBBaBB 
DBBBDaBQ 
BBBaaBQD 
BBBDBBQB 
BBDBBDBB 

gnaBDDI — 
DBDaBI _ 
DBBDBBBD 
DBBBDD 



annaMBD 
aoBBBaao 

QBBBDaOB 

nBODD: 

JDODr 

aor~ 

OBBBBBBd 
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(cj 

Fig. 10 



draft; Fig. 12 {b) shows the harness draft that will be used, and 
Fig. 12 (c) shows the effect obtained in the cloth. The same 
effects may be made to extend lengthwise of the cloth by simply 



316 



COTTON DESIGNING 



reversing the chain draft in the same manner that the harness 
draft was reversed when making waves across the cloth. This 
is illustrated by Fig. 13. 

Diamond Weaves. — By reversing 
both the harness and chain drafts of 
any regular twill, another class of 



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Fig. 



aDDaaaaa 

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w 



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11 



Fig. 12 



naanoaaa 
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Fig. 14 



weaves that is very largely used, and known as diamond weaves 
from the effects formed in the cloth will result. Fig. 14 is a 
typical diamond weave. 



COTTON DESIGNING . 317 

SATIN AND MISCELLANEOUS WEAVES 

Satin weaves, in a certain sense, are the exact opposite of 
twills, since while it is the object of a twill weave to show a twill 
line running diagonally across the cloth, in the satin weave all 
twill lines are avoided as far as possible. 

In a regular *t twill weave only one interlacing is made on each 
pick, but the ends support each other, since on the first pick 
the first end is down and on each succeeding pick the next end 
is down, thus forming a twill line. With the 5-end warp-fiush 
satin weave shown in Pig. 1, only 1 end is down on 
each pick, but the interlacing of each end is at least 
1 pick apart from the interlacing of either of the 



■■■■a 
■OBBB 
■■■DH 

OBHBH 

p ^ 2 ends next to it. Thus on the first pick, the first 
end is down; on the next pick, the fourth end is 
down; on the third pick, the second end is down; on the 
fourth pick, the fifth end is down; and on the fifth pick, the 
third end is down; consequently, the points of interlacing 
do not run up in regular order, as is the case in a regular twill 
weave, but are scattered over the weave. By this means the 
interlacings of the warp and filling are almost entirely hidden, 
while the cloth produced is smooth and soft, this being the 
object of the weave. 

The order in which the ends are raised or lowered when form- 
ing a satin weave ife generally indicated by a series of figures, 
in which each figure represents an end, and its position in the 
series indicates the pick on w^hich it is moved. Thus, referring 
to the 5-end satin in Fig. 1, the ends would be said to be lowered 
in 1, 4, 2, 5, 3 order: 1 being the first number, shows that the 
first end is lowered on the first pick; 4 being the second number, 
shows that the fourth end is lowered on the second pick; and 
soon. 

Satin weaves may be either warp-flush or filling- 

flush; the former having more warp yam on the SoaSB 
face, and the latter more filling on the face. Warp 
and filling satins, as shown on design paper, may be 
readily distinguished, for if there are more fiUed-in than blank 
squares, as in Fig. 1, the weave will be a warp satin. In case 
there are more blank than fiUed-in squares, as in Fig. 2, the 



nnann 

DDDDB 

DBaoa 



318 



COTTON DESIGNING 



weave will be a filling satin, since the blanks represent filling 
over warp. 

The smallest number of ends on which a regular satin can be 
constructed is 5. It cannot be constructed on 6 ends, although 
in many cases a weave known as an irregular satin is made on 
6 ends, the order of moving the harnesses being either 1, 3, 5, 2, 
6, 4 or 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5. With weaves in which the ends are 
raised or lowered in either of these orders, no two adjacent ends 
are moved on successive picks; or in other words, no two ends 
support each other, and yet the same number of ends are not 
skipped between successive picks. 

The following table gives the different orders of moving the 
ends in satin weaves complete on 12 ends or less. 



5-End Satins 
1, 4, 2; 5, 3 
1, 3, 5, 2, 4 

6- End Satins 
1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4 
1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5 



10-End Satins 
1, 4, 7, 10, 3, 6, 9, 2, 5, 8, 
1, 8, 5, 2, 9, 6, 3, 10, 7, 4 

11-End Satins 
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 
1, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3 
1, 4, 7, 10, 2, 5, 8, 11, 3, 6, 9 
1, 9, 6, 3, 11, 8, 5, 2, 10, 7, 4 
1,5,9,2,6, 10,3,7,11,4,8 
1, 8, 4, 11, 7, 3, 10, 6, 2, 9, 5 
1,6,11,5,10,4,9,3,8,2,7 
1, 7, 2, 8, 3, 9, 4, 10, 5, 11, 6 

12-End Satins 
1,6,11,4,9.2,7, 12,5,10,3,8 
1, 8, 3, 10, 5, 12, 7, 2, 9, 4, 11, 6 
9-End Satins 
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8 
1, 8, 6, 4, 2, 9, 7, 5, 3 
1, 5, 9, 4, 8, 3, 7, 2, 6 
1, 6, 2, 7, 3, 8, 4, 9, 5 

Illustrating the typical satin weaves. Fig. 3 is an 8-end 
filling-flush satin; Fig. 4, a 9-end warp-flush satin; and Fig. 
5, a 10-end filling flush satin. 

Double Satins. — Weaves known as double satires are some- 
times constructed from regular satins. These are made by 



7-End Satins 
1, 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, 5 
1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6 
1, 6, 4, 2, 7, 5, 3 
1, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7, 4 

8- End Satins 
1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6 
1. 6, 3. 8, 5, 2, 7, 4 



COTTON DESIGNING 



319 



adding one mark to each mark in a regular satin; that is, in 
case the satin is a filling satin, each end will be raised an extra 
time during one repeat of the weave, and in case the satin is a 



aoDDDBna 
DDBaanno 
nnaaanDH 

DDDaBDDa 

DBDnanan 

DaDDDDBD 

DnDBDDnn 
■DDDDaaa 



Fig. 3 



imiMnHB 



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Fig. 4 



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nanDBDDa oa 



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onaBnaan 



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aa 

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aa 
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Fig. 5 



nnnnBnaL 
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laaaoaaD 



noDO 
nans 
DBaa 
nnon 



warp satin, each end will be lowered an extra time during one 
repeat of the weave. These marks may be placed above, 
below, or at the side of the regular satin marks. Double satin 
weaves are principally used when it is desired to increase the 
strength of the goods 'and yet retain the 
satin face. Typical double-satin weaves 
are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. 

Satin Derivatives. — Satin 
weaves provide a ready means 
for constructing other weaves, 
or derivatives. In almost 
every case satin derivatives 
are formed by adding one or 
more extra risers to the risers of a regular satin. Fig. 8 shows 
such a derivative, the basic satin weave being indicated by 
crosses and the added risers by filled squares. 

Basket Weaves. — Basket weaves are used frequently in all 
classes of woven fabrics; their chief feature is the regular 



saoB 
anna 

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Bona 

DODD 
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DKOa 



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Fig. 6 



Fig. 7 



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Fig. 8 




Fig. 9 



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Fig. 10 



occurrence of large floats of both warp and filling. The first 
type of basket weaves consists of those in which the squares 
of warp and filling are of equal size. These baskets are simply 



320 



COTTON DESIGNING 



DDDBB 

nnnBB 
— moa 

lana 

■■■gg 




Fig. 12 



Fig. 11 



extensions of the plain weave both warp way and filling way, 
and it is always possible to weave them on 2 harnesses. 
Fig. 9 is a basket weave of this type. 

A second type of basket weaves consists of twill baskets, 
which are generally constructed on a satin base and produce 
much neater effects than the regular basket. Fig. 10 shows a 
twill basket weave constructed in this manner from an 8-end 
satin weave. The crosses show the satin weave, and 
the filled-in squares show the risers that are added 
in order to obtain the basket weave. 

A third type of basket weaves consists 
of irregular baskets; in these the squares 
of warp and filling are not exactly equal. 
Thus, in Fig. 11, the filled-in squares in one part of 
the weave occupy 3 ends and 3 picks, and in another 
part they occupy but 2 ends and 2 picks. 

A fourth type of baskets consists of fancy basket weaves. In 
Fig. 12, the squares of filling are broken in the center by a float 
of warp, and the squares of warp are broken by a float of filling. 
Fig. 13 shows a fancy basket weave constructed by separating 
warp floats of 4 ends and 4 picks each by 3 ends and 3 picks 
and filling in these intervening ends 
and picks with a suitable weave. 

Rib Weaves. — Rib, or cord, weaves 
are extensions of the plain weave in 
either the ends or picks alone and are 
of two classes — ^warp ribs and filling 
ribs. A warp-rib weave is an extension 
of the plain weave in its picks. In 
order to illustrate the construction of 
these weaves, Fig. 14, which shows a 
warp rib weave, has been divided into two sections (a) and (b). 
In (a), all the odd-numbered ends float over the filling for 4 
picks, and the even-numbered ends are down. In (6) , the reverse 
is the case. With this class of weaves, a distinct rib is formed 
across the cloth by means of the ends covering the filling. 

To make a perfect fabric with a warp-rib weave there 
should always be more ends per inch than picks per inch iu 
the cloth. 



DDDDBDan 

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aaoaaa 
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aaagag 



Fig. 13 



COTTON DESIGNING 



321 



Filling-rib weaves are the exact opposite of warp-rib weaves. 
As the filling covers the ends in these weaves, ribs are formed 
lengthwise of the cloth, and for this reason the cloth should 
always contain more picks per inch than ends. Fig. 15 is an 



OBDaoi 
aBOBaaai 
aaaBaHOH 
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jOBaBaia 
iaBOBOBa 






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Fig. 14 



Fig. 15 



oaaaaBa. 

aaaaaaoi 

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aaaaanaa 



Fig. 16 



illustration of a filling-rib weave. In (a) , all tlie odd-numbered 
picks float over the 4 ends, and all the even-numbered picks are 
under the ends. In (b), the exact reverse is the case. 

The ribs formed by weaves of this type are not always of 
equal size, for unequal rib weaves are frequently used. Fig, 
16 is an illustration of a weave of this kind. 

Corkscrew Weaves. — Corkscrew weaves may be considered 
a class of rib weaves; but while in rib weaves the ribs extend 
in a straight line either across the cloth or lengthwise of it, 
in corkscrew weaves the ribs form a twill line, and for this 
reason are sometimes known as corkscrew twills. Although these 
weaves may be formed on any number of ends or picks above 5, 
the best effects are obtained with weaves complete on an uneven 
number of ends and picks. 

Fig. 17 shows a typical warp corkscrew weave; filling-cork- 
screw weaves may be formed in a similar manner. Another 



aaaaBoaa aaoBDaoi 
aaaaBaaa aaoBDaaa 
aaaaBaaa aBaaaaao 
BaaaaaaB aaaaBaaa 
BBGaaaaa aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa aaaaaaar 
gaaaaoaa aaaaaaai 



aaaaaaaa 


aaaaaa 


aaaaaaaa 


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aaaaaaaa 


aaaaaa 


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aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
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Daaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 
aaaaaaaa 



Fig. 17 



Fig. 18 



Fig. 19 



class of corkscrew weaves includes those known as warp cork- 
screws with filling effects. These weaves may be constructed in 
such a manner as to form ribs in a twill line across the cloth and 
also show a distinct line of filling floats as in Fig. 18. 



322 COTTON DESIGNING 

Honeycomb Weaves. — Honeycomb weaves are very common 
and are extensively used in making towels. When coarse, 
soft-twisted yams are employed they make a spongy cloth well 
suited to this purpose. It is possible to make honeycomb 
weaves on any number of ends from 4 upwards, but the best 
effects are obtained with an even number of ends. A weave 
of this type is shown in Fig. 19. 



COMBINATION WEAVES 

In the formation of combination weaves, however widely the 
weaves that are to be combined may differ in respect to the 
effects that they produce in the cloth, they must be somewhat 
similar as regards the number of interlacings of the warp 
and filling, otherwise they cannot be made to weave together 
evenly. For this reason, closely-woven and loosely-woven 
weaves should rarely, if ever, be combined if the warp yams 
are all run from the same beam, as they can be made to weave 
only with great difficulty. 

Stripe Weaves. — Stripes are continuous effects running 
lengthwise of the cloth, or in the direction of the warp. One 
method of combination that is as satisfactory as any for certain 
classes of weaves is to combine two weaves, one of which is the 
reverse of the other in regard to the warp and filling flushing. 
These weaves can always be made to cut. By cutting is meant 
that, where the weaves join, the warp 
floats of one weave will oppose, or 
come against, the filling floats of the 
other, and the filling floats oppose the 
warp floats. Fig. 1 shows 8-end warp- 
flush and filling-flush satin weaves _ 

Fir" 1 
combined to form a stripe weave. ' 

Another good method of forming combination stripes with 
warp- and filling-flush weaves is to combine two twill weaves 
in one of which the warp flushes to an extent equal to the filling 
flushes of the other weave. Fig. 2 shows a weave of this kind. 

Very frequently stripe weaves are formed by using an equally- 
flush twill as a chain draft and arranging the drawing-in draft 



iDI 
^DHBL 

■■■■■■■a 

■■■■DBBP 

■DBBBHBI 

BBBBBBDI 

BBBDBBBB 

DBB 



DDBaODDD 

DnnanBDD 

ZaDDDDDD 
DDDBDDDD 
□DODDDBD 
DBDODOaa 

DDDgBnaa 
gnnQODar 



COTTON DESIGNING 



323 



so as to produce the required stripe effect. Fig. 3 (c) shows a 
stripe weave made in this manner. The stripe is obtained by 



aoaDBano DioBHaa ■■■! 

DDDMDaaD ■□■DMBHB DF 



DDBDDDDB 

nmnaaoma 
zioaaamaa 

DDDDHnDD 
DDDHDDDD 
DDHDDDDr 
DHDnDDBD 




Fig. 2 



■DaBDaaH 
aaiBanaB 

DBBOBBaa 
DDBBDD 



DDBBnaflB 
DBBaDBBD 
BBDaBBDD 
BDaBBDDB 



DDBBna 
BBDQBB 
BBnOBD 
DDBBPa 



□ndmnnfflffl 

DDHiannDn 
naaadKDDn 
maaaaaaa 



anonnDSin aannnffl 



unaadiDDa 
naamDDna: 



sKsnaaia 

annnna 
anamaa 



Fig. 3 



DBOBBaBD 
BDBBDBBO 
DBBOBBOB 
OBOBBOBD 
BaBBOBBD 
DBBOBBDr 



IDBBOBO 

BDBBDBaB 
DBBOBBOB 
BBOBBOBO 
■DBBOBOr 
DBBDBBOI 



Fig. 4 



using the cassimere twill as the chain draft and drawing the 
warp ends through the harnesses, as indicated by the drawing- 
in draft shown in Fig. 3 (&). In 
all places where this weave changes , 
the ends cut. By this means a 
perfect stripe is obtained. 

Another class of stripe designs 
includes weaves known as single-end stripes. These are gen- 
erally formed by opposing a warp-flush weave with a single 
end of a filling-flush 
weave, or vice versa, hav- 
ing the ends cut where 
the two weaves oppose 
each other; the effect of 
this is to form a cut mark, 
or fine indented line, 
which is generally 
arranged to run warp 
way of the cloth. Fig. 4 
illustrates one of these 



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— IBDOOBF 
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BBOOOBB 



OBBBOOOB 
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noODBB 
OBBBOOOB 
ODBBBOOO 



weaves. 

Check Weaves. 

Check weaves may be 

made in a variety of rlG. 5 

ways, many of these weaves having a twill or satin base. Often 

the figure on one part of the check will be produced by the warp, 

while the figure on the other part will be made by the filling. 



324 



COTTON DESIGNING 



Fig. 5 shows a check-weave made by cutting and reversing 
an equally-flushed twill. In Fig. 6, a check-weave is shown 
that is made with warp-flush and filling-flush twills cut and 



DDnBDDDB 
DDDDBDDD 
DBDDaBDD 
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Fig. 6 



Fig. 7 



reversed. Warp-flush and filling-flush satin weaves are often 
combined to form checks. Fig. 7 shows such a weave. 



SPOT WEAVES 

Weaves that produce fabrics of a spotted character, that is, 
cloths with spots distributed over the face, are known as spot 
weaves. These weaves are formed by bringing a certain series 
of yam, either the warp or the filling, to the surface of the cloth 
at certain points and allowing it to float for a number of ends 
or picks, as the case may be, thus producing a spotted effect 
on the cloth. The manner in which the yam is allowed to 
float on the face will determine the shape and appearance of the 
spot, and the places where these floats are m.ade will determine 
the arrangement, or distribution, of the spots on the surface of 
the fabric. Spots may be made by floating either the warp or 
the filling on the face of the cloth; the former are known as 
warp spots, and the latter, as filling spots. 

The first consideration when making a spot weave is the 
arrangement, or order of distribution, of the spots on the sur- 
face of the cloth. Spots may be arranged in plain order, 
satin order, broken crow order, etc.; by this is meant that 
the spots appear on the surface of the cloth in the same order 



COTTON DESIGNING 



325 




that the ends are either raised or depressed in a plain, satin, 
or broken crow weave, as the case may be. 

After the spots have been placed on the design paper, the 
blank spaces must be filled in with some simple weave, known as 
the ground weave, in order to give the fabric the required firm- 
ness of texture. 

The weave shown in Pig. 1 is a warp-spot weave having the 
spots arranged in 5-end satin order and a plain ground weave. 

In constructing filling-spot 
weaves, the arrangement of the 
spots on the surface of the cloth 
is determined in exactly the same 
manner as with warp-spot weaves ; 
in fact, the construction of a 
filling-spot weave very closely 
resembles that of a warp-spot 
weave with the single exception 
that in the foraier the filling 
floats on the surface of the cloth 
to form the spots, instead of the 
warp, as in the latter. 
Spot Effects With Extra Warp. — In many fabrics of a spotted 
character, the ground is woven with one warp and one filling, 
and the spots, which are often of a different color from the 
ground, are produced by the use of an extra, or figuring, warp 
or filling, or both. In these cloths, the ground, or body, of the 
fabric is produced in the ordinary manner, the extra system of 
yarn, either warp or filling, that produces the spot figures being 
allowed to float at the back of the cloth except at those places 
where the spots occur, where it floats on the face in such a 
manner as to produce a spot of the required shape and size. 
Assume that it is desired to construct a spotted fabric with 
the spots prodiiced by an extra system of warp yam. Fig. 2 
(a) shows a spot figure arranged in 5-end satin order, which, 
for the purpose of illustration, will be converted into an extra- 
warp spot design. The first step in arranging this spot for 
extra warp is to separate the ends of the spot design, as shown 
in Fig. 2 (a), by blank ends, as shown in Fig. 2 (6). The next 
step is to insert the ground weave, which forms the body of the 



Fig. 1 



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(d) 

Fig. 2 



326 



COTTON DESIGNING 



2,27 



cloth; in this case, the cassimere twill, Fig. 2 (c), will be used. 
The ground weave is inserted on the ends of Fig. 2 (&) that were 
left blank, or, in this case, the even-numbered ends, as shown 
in Fig. 2 (d), which is the completed design. If this weave is 
warped 1 end of white and 1 end of green throughout the warp, 
and a soUd-green filling used, it will be seen that white spots 
arranged as in Fig. 2 (a) will be produced on the surface of a 



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Fig. 3 



Eolid-green twilled fabric. The extra, or white, warp floats on 
the face only to form the spot, and when not producing the 
spot is carried to the back of the fabric. 

Harness and Chain Drafts. — In making harness, or drawing- 
in, and chain drafts for extra-warp fabrics, it is advisable to 
separate the harnesses carrying the ground ends from those 
carrying the extra- warp ends, since fabrics of this description 



328 COTTON DESIGNING \ ' 

require two beams, owing to the difference in take-up between 
the ground warp and the extra, or figuring, warp. It is cus- 
tomary to draw the ground ends on the front harnesses and the 
extra-warp ends on the back harnesses. 

Spots Formed by Extra Filling. — Cloths in which the spot 
is formed on the surface by an extra, or figuring, series of filling 
yarn are constructed very similar to extra- warp fabrics, except 
that the spots are produced by filling yam instead of warp yam. 
The structure of the fabric may be said to be practically the 
same; that is, the cloth consists of a ground, or body, woven 
with a simple weave, and spots produced by flushes of extra 
filling on the face at certain points, while when the figuring 
filling is not to be used to form a spot, it floats on the back of the 
cloth. 

For instance, suppose that it is desired to arrange Fig. 2 (a) 
for an extra-filling design. Separate the picks and place them 
on design paper, as shown in Fig. 3 (a) ; wherever it is desired 
to have the spot appear, the filling is allowed to flush on the 
face, and at every other place the entire warp is raised over the 
pick of filling so that the latter will float on the back of the 
cloth. Fig. 3 (a) represents the exact reverse of Fig. 2 (a) , with 
the exception, of course, that Fig. 3 (a) is opened out, the 
picks being separated by blank picks. To complete the design 
it is now only necessary to insert the ground weave on the 
blank picks that are left for its reception. The completed 
design is shown in Fig. 3 (&) , in which the 4-hamess, or cassi- 
mere, twill has been inserted as a ground weave. 



PIQUES AND BEDFORD CORDS 

Piques. — A piqu6 cloth has a separate system of filling, 
known as the wadding filling, and also has a separate system of 
warp ends for the purpose of holding the wadding filling and 
also to assist in forming ridges across the cloth. 

In making ^ design for a piqu6, the following points should 
be noted: (1) When placing the weave on design paper, the 
first step is to indicate the vertical rows of squares on which 
the face ends are to be placed and also the vertical rows of 



COTTON DESIGNING 



329 



squares on which the backing ends are to be placed ; this can be 
done by shading the vertical rows of squares representing the 
backing ends. (2) The proportion of face ends to back ends 
in piques is generally 2 face and 1 back; that is, every third 
end on the design paper will be a backing end. (3) The picks 
on which the wadding filling is to be inserted should be indi- 
cated in some way. (4) The proportion of face picks to wadding 
picks depends to a large extent on the kind of yarn to be used 
for the wadding; in case it is coarser than the yarn for the face 
picks, the proportion is generally 2 face to 1 wadding, although 
different proportions are used to suit different requirements. 
(5) In addition to the face and wadding picks there are v/hat 
are known as the cutting picks; these are the picks on which 
the backing ends are brought to the face for the purpose of 
pulling down the face cloth between the wadding picks, thus 

forming furrows across the 
cloth, and should be indicated 
on the design paper in some 
manner. (6) The number of 
picks between the cutting 
picks is determined by the 
design to be woven; however, 
if possible, there should be at 
least 2 picks of the face weave 
between the wadding picks 
and the cutting picks. (7) 
The face weave is placed on 
all the face ends, neglecting 
the backing ends and wadding 
picks entirely. The face 
weave of piques is generally 



F& C 
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Fig. 1 



the plain weave. (8) All the face ends are raised on the wadding 
picks. (9) AU the backing ends are raised on the cutting picks. 
Fig. 1 shows the design paper marked out for a piqu6 design 
occupying 18 ends and 24 picks. The shaded squares indicate 
those on which the backing warp and the wadding filling are to 
be placed. The ends and picks are also marked with the letters 
F, face; B, back; W, wadding; F b'C, face and cutting. The 
next step is the placing of the face weave on the squares that 



330 



COTTON DESIGNING 



are not marked for back ends and wadding picks. Fig. 2 shows 
the design with the plain weave inserted for the face. The 
next step is to mark the design to show all the face warp 
ends raised on the wadding picks, since these are inserted 
so as to cause the face cloth to be pushed upwards between 
the cutting picks. The back warp must remain under the 
wadding picks to bind the wadding picks to the fabric. The 
next step is to raise the backing ends on the cutting picks. 
This requires the backing ends to be raised on the eleventh 
and twelfth, also the twenty- third and twenty-fourth picks. 
The effect of this is to bind the backing ends to the fabric 



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and pull down the face cloth to form a hollow furrow after 
a certain number of wadding picks have been inserted, in 
this case 4 picks, and after a certain amount of face cloth 
has been woven, in this case 6 picks. 

Fig. 3 shows the design complete. The first 2 picks are plain, 
the backing ends being down and consequently not showing 
on the face at all. On the third and fourth picks, the wadding 
is inserted. While this is done all the face warp is raised, as 
shown by the crosses, and the back warp is down; consequently, 
the picks of wadding will lie in between these two series of 
yams and will not show on the face, but being heavier than the 
face yams will tend to raise the cloth constructed by the 



COTTON DESIGNING 331 

face weave. The next 4 picks are repetitions of the first 4 
picks, and then come 2 more face picks. On the eleventh 
and twelfth picks, in addition to the plain weave of the face 
cloth, the backing warp is brought to the surface, as shown by 
the dots. These are the cutting picks. In weaving a pique 
design, the backing warp is generally placed on a separate 
beam that is weighted heavier than that containing the face 
warp, thus causing the backing warp to be under greater 
tension. When this backing warp is brought to the face, as 
it is under greater tension, it will of course tend to draw down 
the face yarns, thus causing a furrow between those parts of the 
cloth that contain the wadding picks.. 

The next 12 picks are but repetitions of the first 12 picks; 
Fig. 3 shows 6 repeats of the ends and 2 repeats of the picks, the 
weave being complete on 3 ends and 12 picks. 

It will be understood that the wadding picks do not show 
on the face of the cloth at any point, but simply lie between 
the face and back ends. Again, the backing ends do not 
show on the face of the cloth at all, except where they are 
raised for the purpose of pulling down the face cloth. Conse- 
quently, the face of a cloth woven with a design such as the 
one shown in Pig. 3 would be similar to plain cloth, with the 
exception of the raising of the cloth in ridges through the effect 
of the wadding picks, and the formation of furrows by the 
floating of the back warp over 2 picks in certain parts of the 
cloth. 

The position that the different ends and picks occupy when 
woven into cloth with this design is more clearly illustrated 




■Xst End Face, ^2d End Back. 3d End Face: 

Fig. 4 

in Fig. 4, where a sectional view of 3 ends and 24 picks is 
shown. The heavy, dark line represents the backing end, 
and the other two lines running in the same direction show 2 
face ends. The larger cross-sections marked w show the 



332 COTTON DESIGNING^ 

wadding picks, and the smaller cross-sections show the face 
picks. The face picks interweaving with the face warp crowd 
over the wadding picks, thus hiding them. The backing end 
rising over the interlacings of the face filling and face warp 
draws them down, thus forming a furrow across the cloth. 

In making the harness and chain drafts for a pique weave, 
the backing and face warps are drawn through separate sets 
of harnesses. The backing warp is in most cases drawn 
through the back harnesses and the face warp through the 
front harnesses. 

When pique cloths are arranged 2 face to 1 back they are 
as a mle reeded 3 in a dent; that is, 2 face ends and 1 back 
end are drawn in each dent of the reed in such a manner that 
there will be 1 face end on each side 'of the back end in the 
dent. Piques are high-pick cloths, the number of picks per 
inch being largely in excess of the number of ends per inch. 

Bedford Cords. — Although Bedford cords have the same 
general appearance as piques with the exception that the fur- 
rows run lengthwise of the cloth -^ 5 
instead of across the cloth, their 
construction differs to a large 
extent. Thus , wadding ends 
are employed instead of wad- 
ding picks, and these wadding 
ends are held in.the cloth by QCFFWFFW FFCCFFWF FWFF' 
means of the same picks that YiG. 5 
form the face of the cloth instead of using backing picks. 
Two warp ends working plain throughout the entire length of 
the cloth form the furrow. 

Fig. 5 shows one repeat of the ends and two repeats of the 
picks of a Bedford-cord design; the furrows lengthwise of the 
cloth, which are characteristic of Bedford cords, are formed by 
the first and second, also, the eleventh and twelfth ends, which 
work plain throughout the cloth; while the weaves between 
them form the ridges. The parts of the design between the 
ends working plain are marked a and 6. In section a the fifth 
and eighth ends, marked W, are the wadding ends. The third, 
fourth, sixth, seventh, ninth, and tenth ends work plain on the 
first and second picks and are all raised on the third and fourth 



BDiaigi^iaa^ 

naDBDDBD 

anBDDBDn 
naiEiBgsEisi^ 
BDEiEi^iaia^ 

DSOHDDHD 
aDHODigD 



aiSlDBnBDD 

[xigidiaHDaH 

■DBDSS^® 
gHaDBDHaD 



■ODH 
DDBQ 



_DOL 
DDBQ 



COTTON DESIGNING 335 

picks. This being one repeat of the design in its picks, the 
others are only repetitions of these first 4 picks. The effect of 
raising the ends in this manner is to cause the second and fifth 
picks and also the first and sixth to come together and thus 
produce a plain weave on the face of the cloth. On those picks 
on which all these ends are raised the wadding ends are also 
raised. The filling floating at the back will bind the wadding 
ends to the face cloth, not allowing the wadding ends to show 
on the face and yet holding them securely in position. 

Section b corresponds to section a, with the exception that the 
position of the picks is reversed; that is, while in section a the 
face ends are working plain on the first and. second picks, 
in section b they are all raised; and while in section a all the 
face ends are raised on the third and fourth picks, in section b 
they are working plain. Thus, the same picks, that are weav- 
ing plain to form the face cloth in section a are floating at the 
back to hold the wadding ends in section b; and vice versa. 

The first, second, eleventh, and twelfth ends, which work 
plain throughout the cloth, will work tighter than the rest of 
the ends in the warp, and make the furrows between those 
parts of the cloth that contain the wadding ends. 

When making the dra wing-in draft for a Bedford cord, the 
wadding ends are generally drawn through the back harnesses, 
and the face ends are drawn through the front harnesses. In 
reeding these cloths, each wadding end should be drawn into 

a dent with 2 or more face 



QDoamnDsi 
DnnDDaan 
aaaDDDDn 
aaDDaaaa 
nnaainDain 
noainDiaDD 
QEinannDD 
maaDDDaa 



DDDDnnno 

DDDnaQED 
DDDDDEiaa 
DOaDSlDnE 

oainDaaDD 
laaDDDnDD 
ooamnnaa 
DDmaaDDa 



nnno ends if possible. Fig. 6 shows 
EinDE) a drawing-in draft for Fig. 5. 
DDDD In reeding the ends when drawn 
DDDD through the harnesses in this 

~" manner the best plan would be 

Fig. 6 to draw 5 ends in a dent, com- 

mencing with the second end; 
that is, the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ends would 
occupy one dent; the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and 
eleventh another; the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, 
and sixteenth, another; and the seventeenth, eighteenth, nine- 
teenth, twentieth, and first, another. This will bring each 
wadding end in a dent between 2 or more face ends. 



334 USEFUL INFORMATION 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

UNITED STATES MONEY 

10 mills (m.) =1 cent , . . ct. 

10 cents =1 dime d. 

10 dimes =1 dollar $ 

10 dollars =1 eagle E. 

m. ct. d. $ E. 

10= 1 
100= 10= 1 
1,000= 100= 10= 1 
10,000 = 1 ,000 = 100 = 10 = 1 
United States currency is based on a decimal system, the unit 
being 1 dollar; thus, one-tenth of 1 dollar is 1 dime and ten 
times 1 dollar is 1 eagle. 

Dollars are separated from cents and mills by a decimal 
point, cents occupying the first two, and mills the third place 
to the right of the point, since cents represent hundredth 
parts of a dollar and mills, thousandth parts; thus, $25,487 
is read twenty-five dollars forty-eight cents and seven mills. 

When the number of cents in an expression of dollars and 
decimal parts of a dollar is less than ten, a cipher is inserted 
between the decimal point and the figure denoting the number 
of cents, since cents represent hundredth parts of a dollar, 
thus $14.06. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

16 drams (dr.) =1 ounce oz. 

16 ounces =1 pound lb. 

100 pounds =1 hundredweight cwt. 

20 hundredweight =1 ton T. 

dr. oz. lb. cwt. T. 

16= 1 

256= 16= 1 
25,600= 1,600= 100= 1 
512,000 = 32,000 = 2,000 = 20 = 1 



USEFUL INFORMATION 335 

A long ton is equal to 2,240 pounds and is used in connec- 
tion with large lots of merchandise, notably iron and coal, 
when bought and sold by the wholesale. A long hundred- 
weight is 112 pounds. The long ton and long hundredweight 
are used in the United States Custom Houses. Unless other- 
wise stated, the short ton (2,000 pounds) and short hundred- 
weight (100 pounds) are always referred to. 

An adaptation of avoirdupois weight that is used in mill 
work for weighing yam, roving, etc., is as follows: 
gr. dr. oz. lb. 

27.34+ = 1 
437.50 =16 = 1 
7,000.00 =256 = 16 = 1 

TROY WEIGHT 

24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight pwt. 

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce oz. 

12 ounces =1 pound lb. 

gr. pwt. oz. lb. 
24= 1 
480= 20= 1 
5,760 = 240=12 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple sc. or a 

3 scruples = 1 dram dr. or 5 

8 drams =1 ounce oz. or g 

12 otmces =1 pound lb. or H>. 

gr. 3 5 o lb. 
20= 1 
60= 3= 1 
480= 24= 8= 1 
5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 

LIQUID MEASURE 

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt. 

2 pints =1 quart qt. 

4 quarts =1 gallon gal. 

31| gallons =1 barrel bbl. 

63 gallons =1 hogshead hhd. 



336 USEFUL INFORMATION \ 

gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd. \ 

4= 1 \ 

8= 2= 1 
32= 8= 4= 1 
1,008 = 252 = 126 = 311 = 1 
2,016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE 

60 minims, or drops (iTt) . . . . = 1 fluid dram f 5 

8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce it 

.16 fluid ounces =1 pint O. 

8 pints ....r =1 gallon Cong. 

M /5 fsO. Cong. 
60= 1 
480= 8= 1 
7,680= 128= 16 = 1 
61,440=1,024 = 128 = 8=1 

DRY MEASURE 

2 pints (pt.) =1 quart qt. 

8 quarts =1 peck pk. 

4 pecks =1 bushel bu. 

pt. qt. pk. bu. 
2= 1 

16= 8 = 1 

64 = 32 = 4 = 1 

LINEAR, OR LONG, MEASURE 

12 inches (in.) or (") =1 foot ft. or (') 

3 feet = 1 yard yd. 

5| yards, or I6-2- feet =1 rod rd. 

40 rods =1 furlong fur. 

8 furlongs, or 320 rods. . . . = 1 mile mi. 

in. ft. yd. rd. fur. mi. 

12= 1 
36= 3 = 1 
198= 16J= 5^=^ 1 
7,920= 660 = 220 = 40=1 
63,360 = 5,280 =1,760 =320 = 8 = 1 



USEFUL INFORMATION 337 

SURVEYORS' MEASURE 

7.92 inches (in.) =1 link li. 

25 links =1 rod rd.. 

100 links, 4 rods, or 65 feet. = 1 chain ch. 

10 chains =1 furlong fur. 

8 furlongs, or 80 chains . . = 1 mile mi. 

in. li. rd, ch. fur. mi. 



7.92 = 


1 








198 = 


25 = 


1 






792 = 


100 = 


4 = 


= 1 




7,920 = 


1,000 = 


40 = 


= 10 = 


1 


63,360 = 


8,000 = 


320 = 


= 80 = 


8 



= 1- 

Cunter's chain, 66 feet in length and divided into 100 links, 
is used in ordinary land surveys, but for locating roads and 
laying out public works an engineer's chain 100 feet in length 
is used. At the present day the tendency of engineers is to 
use a 100-ft. steel tape for measurements. 

CLOTH MEASURE 

2 1 inches (in.) =1 nail na. 

4 nails =1 quarter (of a yard) qr- 

4 quarters =1 yard yd. 

3 quarters = 1 ell (Flemish) .E. F. 

5 quarters = 1 ell (English) E. E. 

iji. na. qr. yd. E. F. E. E. 
2i= 1 
9 = 4 = 1 
36 =16 = 4 = 1 
27 =12 = 3= I =1 
45 =20 = 5 = li =lf =1 
The French ell equals 6 qr. and the Scotch ell, 4 qr. 1+in., 
or practically 37 in. 

SQUARE MEASURE 

144 square inches (sq. in.).. = 1 square foot sq. ft. 

9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd. 

30 i square yards, or) ^ - , 

272i square feet / = 1 square rod sq. rd. 

160 square rods =1 acre A. 

640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi. 



338 USEFUL INFORMATION 

sq. in. sq.ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. A. sq. mi. 

144 = 1 

1,296 = 9 = 1 

39,204 = 272^= 30|= 1 

6,272,640 = 43,560 =■ 4,840 = 160 =1 
4.014.489,600 =27,878,400 =3,097.600 =102,400 =640 =1 

CUBIC MEASURE 

1,728 cubic inches (cu. in.)- . = 1 cubic foot cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd. 

16 cubic feet =1 cord foot cd. ft. 

8 cord feet, or \ , , , 

128cubicfeet / =^"°''^ "^- 

cu.in. cu.ft. cu.yd. 

1,728 = 1 
46,656 =27 =1 

MEASURES OF TIME __ 

60 seconds (sec.) =1 minute min. 

60 minutes =1 hour hr. 

24 hours =1 day da. 

7 days = 1 week wk. 

3651 days, or 
, 52 weeks 1 J days. 

sec. min. hr. da. wk. yr. 

60= 1 

36,000= 60= 1 

86.400= 1,440= 24= 1 
604,800= 10,080= 168= 7 = 1 
31,557,600 = 525,960 = 8,766 = 3651 = 52,^=1 
Note. — For convenience it is customary to reckon 365 da. 
as a year and call every fourth year 366 da., placing the extra 
day in the month of February, which then has 29 da. This 
is known as a leap year. A year is equal to 12 months (mo.) 
and for convenience a month is considered as 30 da. 

ANGULAR MEASURE 

60 seconds (") =1 minute ' 

60 minutes =1 degree " 

90 degrees =1 right angle, or quadrant . . L 

360 degrees, or 4 1_ =1 circumference cir. 



} 



= 1 year yr. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 339 

MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES 

1 pound sterling (£) = $4.8665 

1 fathom =6 feet 

1 knot, or nautical mile = Irk miles 

1 meter = 39.37 inches 

1 decimeter =3.937 inches 

1 centimeter = .3937 inch 

1 millimeter = .03937 inch 

1 dozen (doz.) =12 articles 

1 gross =12 dozen 

1 great gross =12 gross 

1 quire =24 sheets of pap'er 

1 ream =20 quires 

1 large ream = 500 sheets 

1 perch = 24f cubic feet 

1 tierce =42 gallons 

1 puncheon =2 tierces 

1 carat = 3i grains (troy) 

1 butt = 108 gallons 

1 bushel =2,150.42 cubic inches 

1 palm =3 inches 

1 hand =4 inches 

1 span =9 inches 

1 gallon of water (U. S. 

Standard) =231 cubic inches = 8.355 pounds 

1 gallon of water (British 

Imperial gallon) =277 cubic inches = 10 pounds 

1 cubic foot = 7.481 gallons ■* 



MENSURATION 

TRIANGLES 

A triangle is a plane figure bounded by 
three straight lines and having three angles. 
The altitude of a triangle is the distance from 
d its apex to base measured perpendicularly to 

the base. In the triangle abc, the dotted line bd represents 
the altitude, and the line a c the base, of the triangle.j 




340 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Rule. — To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base by ihe 
altitude and divide the product by 2. 

Example. — The base of the triangle is 14 in. in length and 

the altitude is 12 in.; what is the area? 

14 in. X 12 in. 
Solution. — = 84 sq. in. 

2 

Note. — In the above example it will be noticed that by 
multiplying inches by inches the product obtained is square 
inches; similariy, feet multiplied by feet or rods by rods equals 
square feet or square rods, etc. It must be remembered that 
only hke numbers can be m.ultiplied together and that feet 
can never be multiplied by inches, nor rods hy feet; conse- 
quently, in aU problems deaUng with mensuration, all dimen- 
sions must be reduced to like terms before miiltiplying. 

Rule. — To find the area of a triangle when the altitude is 
unknown but the length of each side is given, from one-half the sum 
of the three sides, subtract each of the sides separately and multiply 
the remainders together and by one-half the sum of the sides; the 
square root of the product will be the area of the triangle. 

Example. — ^What is the area of a triangle the sides of which 
are, respectively, 16, 16, and 12 ft. in length? 

Solution.— 16-M6+12 = 44; 44-i-2 = 22; 22-16 = 6; 
22-16 = 6; 22-12 = 10; 

6X6X10X22 = 7,920; •V7;920 = 88.99 sq. ft. 

QUADRILATERALS 

A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight 
lines. 

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral the opposite sides of which 

are parallel. 

A rectangle, Pig. 1, is a parallelogram having 
all of its angles right angles 



A, square. Pig. 2, is a paral- PiG- 1 

lelogram having all of its angles right angles 
and all of its sides of equal length. 

A rhomboid. Fig. 3, 
is a parallelogram hav- 
PiG 2 ^^^ none of its angles 

right angles. Pig' 3 

A rhombus. Pig. 4, is a parallelogram 
having all of its sides of equal length but none of its angles 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



541 




Fig. 



Fig. 5 



right angles. The altitude of a parallelogram is the dis- 
tance between two opposite sides measured perpendicularly, 
as indicated by the dotted lines 
in Figs. 3 and 4. 

Rule. — To find the area of a paral- 
lelogram, multiply the altitude by 

the base and the product will be the 
4 

area. 

Example. — Find the area of a parallelogram the base of 
which is 345 in. and the altitude 423 in. 

Solution. — 423 in. X 345 in. = 145,935 sq. in. 
A trapezoid. Fig. 5, is a quadrilateral having "only two of its 
sides parallel. The altitude of a trapezoid is always measured 
perpendicularly between the paral- 
lel sides, as shown by the dotted 
line in Fig. 5. 

Rule. — To find the area of a trap- 
ezoid, multiply one-half the sunt of the parallel sides by the 
altitude. 

Example. — The parallel sides of a trapezoid are, respectively, 
12 and 28 ft. in length, and the altitude is 30 ft.; what is the 
area of the figure? 

Solution.— 12 ft. +28 ft. = 40 ft. 
40 ft. -^2 = 20 ft. 
20 ft. X 30 ft. = 600 sq. ft. 
A trapezium. Fig. 6, is a quadrilateral that has no two sides 
parallel. A line joining two opposite comers of a quadrilateral, 
as the line ab. Fig. 6, is known as a 
diagonal. 

Rule. — To find the area of a tra- 
pezium, divide the figure into two 
triangles by means of a diagonal; the 
sum of the areas of these triangles 
equals the area of the trapezium. 

Example. — ^What is the area of 
a trapezium whose diagonal is 43 in. 
long, the length of the perpendicu- 
lar lines dropped on the diagonal from the opposite comers 
being 22 and 26 in. respectively? 




342 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Note. — The perpendicular lines drawn from opposite comers 
of a quadrilateral to its diagonal constitute the altitudes of 
the two triangles into which the diagonal divides the quadri- 
lateral. Thus, in Fig. 6, the line fd represents the altitude 
of the triangle adb, and the line ec the altitude of the triangle 
acb. 

Solution. — 43 in. X 22 in. = 946 sq. in. ; 946 sq. in. -5- 2 = 473 
sq. in., area of one triangle; 43 in. X 26 in, = 1,118 sq. in.; 1,118 
sq. in. -T- 2 = 559 sq. in., area of other triangle. 

473 sq. in. +559 sq. in. = 1,032 sq. in., area of trapezium 

POLYGONS 

A polygon is a plane figure bounded by straight lines. The 
term is usually applied to a figure having more than four sides. 
The bounding lines are called the sides, and the sum of the 
lengths of all the sides is called the perimeter of the polygon. 
A regular polygon is one in which all the sides and all the angles 
are equal. A polygon of five sides is called a pentagon', one of 
six sides, a hexagon, etc. Regular polygons having from five 
to eight sides are shown in the accompanying illustration. 




Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon 

Rule. — To find the area of a regular polygon, multiply the peri' 
meter by one-half the length of the perpendicular from its center to 
one of its sides. 

Example. — The perimeter of a regular polygon is 28 in. in 
length and the perpendicular distance from its center to one 
side is 8 in.; what is its area? 

Solution. — 8 in.T-2 = 4 in.; 28 in.X4 in. = 112 sq. in. 

THE CIRCLE 

A circle. Fig. 1, is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, 
called the circutnference, every portion of which is equally dis- 
tant from a point within called the center. The diameter of a cir- 
cle is any straight line drawn through its center and terminating 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



:43 



at each end in the circumference. Thus the line ab, Fig. 2, 
is a diameter of the circle. A straight line drawn from the 





Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 




center to the circumference of a circle, as ac. Fig. 3, is called a 
radius. 

Rule. — To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by 3.1416. 

Example. — ^What is the circumference of a circle the diameter 
of which is 48 in.? 

Solution. — 48 in. X 3. 1416 = 150.7968 in. 

Rule. — To find the diameter of a circle with a given length of 
circumference, divide the circumference by 3.1416. 

Example. — What is the diameter of a circle the length of 
circumference of which is 8 ft.? 

Solution. — 8 ft. -^3.1416 = 2.5465 ft. 

Rule. — To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the 
diameter by .7854. 

Example. — ^What is the area of a circle the diameter of which 
is 75 in.? 

Solution. — 75 in.X75 in. X. 7854 = 4,417.875 sq. in. 

Rule. — To find the length of one side of a square equal in area 
to a given circle, multiply the diameter of the circle by .886227. 

Example. — What is the length of one side of a square that is 
equal in area to a circle 15 in. in diameter? 
Solution.— 15 in. X .886227 = 13.293 in. 



THE PRISM 

A prism is a solid body the ends of which are 
formed by two similar plane figures that are 
equal and parallel to each other, and whose sides 
are parallelograms. Prisms are triangular, rectangular, 
square, etc., according to the character of the figure forming the 



344 USEFUL INFORMATION 

ends. The base of a prism is either end, and of solids in 
general, the ends on which they are supposed to rest. 

Rule. — To find the surface area of a prism, multiply the length 
of the perimeter of the base by the altitude, and to the product add 
the area of both ends. 

Example. — ^What is the surface area of a square prism the 
base of which is 14 in. square and the altitude 25 in. in length? 

SoLUTiQN. — 14 in. X 4 = 56 in., perimeter of base 
56 in.X25 in. = 1,400 sq. in., area of sides 
14 in.X14 in. = 196 sq. in., area of one base 
196 sq. in.X2 = 392 sq. in., area of both bases 
1,400 sq. in.+392 sq. in. = 1,792 sq. in., total surface area 

Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a prism or rectangular 
box, multiply the width by the depth and by the length; or find the 
area of the base according to the rule previously given, which 
when multiplied by the height equals the contents or solidity of the 
prism. 

Example. — What is the capacity of a box 36 in. long, tha 
ends being 14 in. by 28 in.? 

Solution.— 28 in. X 14 in.X36 in. = 14,112 cu. in. 

Note. — It has been stated that inches multiplied by inches 
equals square inches or, similarly, yards multiplied by yards 
equals square yards. Continuing still further, as is necessary 
in finding the contents, volume, solidity, or capacity of solids; 
square inches or square yards multiphed by inches or yards 
equals cubic inches or cubic yards, etc. 

From this it will be seen that by multiplying together the 
two dimensions of a surface, such as a rectangle, the area of 
the figiire wiU be expressed in square units, and if the three 
dimensions of a solid, as for instance, a square prism, are 
multiplied together the contents, or solidity, of the soUd is 
expressed in cubical units. 

THE CYLINDER 

A cylinder is a body of uniform diameter the ends, or bases, 
of which are equal parallel circles. 

Rule. — To find the surface area of a cylinder, mul- 
tiply the circumference of the base by the height of the 
cylinder and to this product add the area of the ends. 

Example. — What is the surface area of a cylin- 
der 6 in. in diameter and 13 in. high? CT' ^ 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



345 



Solution. — 

62 X. 7854 = 28.2744 sq. in., area of one end 
28.2744 sq. in. X2 = 56.5488 sq. in., area of both ends 

6 in. X 3.1416 = 18.8496 in., length of circumference 
18.8496X 13 = 245.0448 sq. in., area of convex surface 
245.0448+56.5488 = 301.5936 sq. in., total surface area 

Note. — The convex surface of a solid is the curved surface; 
thus, the area of the convex surface of a cylinder is its total 
surface area less the area of the ends. 

Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a cylinder, first find 
the area of the base, and then multiply the area of the base by the 
altitude. 

Example. — ^How many cu. ft. of water will a cylindrical tank 
12 ft. in diameter and 14 ft. high hold? 

Solution.^ 122X. 7854 = 113.0976 sq. ft., area of base; 
113.0976 sq. ft.X14 ft. = 1,583.3664 cu. ft. 

THE PYRAMID AND CONE 
A pyramid. Fig. 1, is a solid the base of which is a polygon and 
the sides of which taper uniformly to a point called the apex. 
A cone, Fig. 2, is a solid having a 
circle as a base and a convex sur- 
face tapering uniformly to the 
apex. The altitude of a pyramid 
or cone is the perpendicular dis- 
tance from the apex to the base. 

Rule. — To find the contents or 
volume of a cone or pyramid, multi- 
ply the area of the base by one-third the altitude. 

Example. — ^What is the solid contents of a cone 30 ft. high 
and 5 ft. in diameter at the base? 

Solution. — S^X .7854 = 19.635 sq. ft. area of base 
i of 30 ft. = 10 ft. 
19.635 sq. ft. X 10 ft. = 196.35 cu. ft. 

THE FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID OR CONE 

If a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base, as in Fig. 1, 
the lower part is called the frustum of the pyramid. If a cone 
is cut in a similar manner, as in Fig. 2, the lower part is called 
the frustum of the cone. 





Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 



346 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



Rule. — To find the contents or volume of the frustum of a 
pyramid or cone, find the areas of the two ends of the frustum; 
multiply them together and extract the square root of the product. 
To the result thus obtained add the 
two areas and multiply the sum by 
one-third of the altitude. 

Example. — ^What is the capacity 
of a tank shaped Hke the frustum 
of a cone, the inside diameter of 
the top being 10 ft. and of the 
bottom 14 ft., and the depth of 
the tank being 12 ft.? 
Solution.— 10 ft.XlO ft. X. 7854 =78.54 sq. 
smaU end; 14 ft.X14 ft. X .7854 = 153.9384 sq. 
153.9384 X 78.54 = 12,090.321936 ; 





Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 

ft., area of 
ft., area of 



large end; 153.9384X78.54 = 12,090.321936; ^12,090.321936 
= 109.956 sq. ft.; 109.956+153.9384+78.54 = 342.4344 sq. ft.; 
12 ft. -h3 = 4 ft. 

342.4344 sq. ft. X4 ft. = 1,369.7376 cu. ft. 

THE SPHERE 

A sphere is a solid bounded by a continuous convex surface, 
every part of which is equally distant from a 
point within called the center. The diameter, or 
axis, of a sphere is a line passing through its cen- 
ter and terminating at each end at the surface. 
Rule. — To find the surface area of a sphere, 
square the diameter and multiply the result by 
S.14I6. 

Example. — What is the surface area of a sphere 14 in. in 
diameter? 
Solution. — 

142X3.1416 = 14X14X3.1416 = 615.75 sq. in. 
Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a sphere, multiply the 
cube of the diameter by .5236. 

Example. — How many cubic inches of ivory in a billiard ball 
2 in. in diameter? 

Solution.— 23X. 5236 = 4.1888 cu. in. 




USEFUL INFORMATION 347 

MENSURATION OF LUMBER 

Lumber is measured by board measure, which is an adaptation 
of square measure. A board foot is considered as 1 sq. ft. of 
board 1 in. thick; therefore 1,000 ft. of lumber is equal to 1,000 
sq. ft. of boards 1 in. thick. 

Rule. — To find the number of feet of lumber in 1-inch boards, 
multiply the length of the board, in feet, by the width, in inches, and 
divide the product by 12. 

Example. — How many feet of lumber are there in a 1-in. 
board 18 ft. long and 8 in. wide? 

18X8 

Solution. — ■ = 12 ft. 

12 

Rule. — To find the number of feet of lumber in joists, beams, etc., 
multiply the width, in inches, by the thickness, in inches, and by 
the length, in feet. Divide this product by 12 and the quotient is 
the number of feet of lumber in the stick. 

Example. — How many feet of lumber in a joist 4 in. wide, 
3 in. thick, and 12 ft. long? 

4X3X12 

Solution. — =12 ft. 

12 



MECHANICAL CALCULATIONS 

SHAFTING 

The shafting used in a mill may be divided into three classes 
as follows: (1) The main, or head, shaft, which is driven 
directly from the source of power; this shaft is sometimes 
called the first, or prime, mover. (2) The second movers, or 
line shafts; these are the main driving shafts of each room and 
derive their power from the prime mover. (3) Countershafts 
for simply transmitting power to different parts of the room or 
for making changes in the speed for driving some particular 
machine or machines; these are located with reference to the 
positions of different machines in order to supply them with 
power as economically as possible. Long countershafts are 
classed as second movers. 



348 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Formerly wrought-iron shafts were largely used, but these 
are being replaced by turned or cold-rolled steel shafting. The 
following rules will be found useful in finding the required size 
of a cold-rolled shaft necessary to transmit a given horsepower. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of a main shaft, find the 
cube root of 100 times the required horsepower divided by the 
desired number of revolutions of the shaft per minute. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of line shafts to transmit a 
given horsepower with the power taken off at intervals and the 
bearings of the shaft not more than 8 ft. apart, find the cube root 
of 50 times the required horsepower divided by the desired nutnber 
of revolutions per mimite. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of short countershafts for 
transmitting a given horsepower, find the cube root of 30 times the 
required horsepower divided by the desired number of revolutions 
per minute. 

Example. — Suppose that it is desired to purchase a line shaft 

for a weave room requiring 350 H. P. ; it is desired to have the 

shaft make 300 rev. per min. and a cold-rolled shaft is to be 

used. What diameter of shafting is required? 

50 XH. P. 

Solution. — Diameter of shaft equals cube root of 

rev. per min. 



4 



50X350 oo-T . • 
= 3.87+m. 



300 

Note. — In a case hke this a 4-inch cold-rolled shaft would 
probably be ordered, as this would allow for the extra power 
required to overcome the friction of the shaft in its bearings. 

The following rules give the methods of finding the required 
size of turned shafting to transmit a required horsepower. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of a main shaft, find the 
cube root of 125 times the required horsepower divided by the 
desired number of revolutions per minute. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of line shafts with the 
power taken off at intervals and the bearings not more than 8 ft. 
apart, find the cube root of 90 times the required horsepower 
divided by the desired number of revolutions per minute. 

Rule. — To find the required diameter of short countershafts, 
find the cube root of 60 times the required horsepower divided by the 
desired number of revolutions per minute. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



349 



Example. — ^What diameter of turned shafting is capable of 
transmitting 45 H. P., the shaft to be the main driving, or line, 
shaft of the room and the bearings not more than 8 ft. apart? 
It is desired that the shaft make 150 rev. per min. 

^. 90XH. P. 
Solution. — Diameter of shaft equals cube root of ■ 

rev. per min. 

-=3 in. 

Note. — ^When the hangers are placed far apart, a larger 
shaft is necessary in order that it may have stiffness to with- 
stand the bending strain due to its lack of support and to its 
own weight. 

Distance Between Hangers. — ^When hangers are put up they 
should be lined perfectly true, both laterally and vertically, 
and should not be placed too far apart. The distance between 
the bearings should not be great enough to permit a deflection 
of the shaft of more than .01 in. per foot of length. Hence, 
when the shaft is heavily loaded with pulleys, the bearings 
must be closer than when it carries only a few. PtiUeys that 
transmit a large amount of power should be placed as near a 
hanger as possible. 

The accompanying table gives the maximuni distances 
between the bearings of different sizes of continuous shafts that 
are used for the transmission of power: 





Distance Between Bearings 


Diameter of Shaft 


Feel 




Inches 






Wrought-Iron Shaft 


Steel Shaft 


2 


11 


11.5 


3 


13 


13.75 


4 


15 


15.75 


5 


17 


18.25 


6 


19 


20.5 


7 


21 


22.25 


8 


23 


24 


9 


25 


26 



350 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Speeds and Diameters of Pulleys. — ^A driving pulley is one 
that furnishes power to a driven pulley. The tight side of a 
belt always travels toward a driving pulley and the slack side 
toward a driven pulley. 

Rule. — To find the number of revolutions of a driven pulley, 
multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its revolutions and 
divide the product by the dia'/neter of the driven pulley. 

Example. — A driving shaft making 350 rev. per min. carries 

a 24-in. pulley that drives. a 14-in. pulley on the main shaft of a 

machine; find the revolutions of the main shaft of the machine. 

24 in. X 350 

Solution. — = 600 rev. per mm. 

14 in. 

Rule. — To find the revolutions of a driving pulley, multiply the 
diatneter of the driven pulley by its speed and divide by the 
diameter of the driving pulley. 

Example. — The shaft of a machine makes 700 rev. per min. 
The size of the driven pulley is 8 in. and the driving pulley on 
the main shaft is 14 in.; find the revolutions of the main 
driving shaft. gin.XTOO 

Solution. — — =400 rev. per min. 

14 in. 

Rule. — To find the diameter of a driven pulley, multiply the 
diameter of the driving pulley by its speed and divide the product 
by the desired number of revolutions of the driven pulley. 

Example. — The main shaft of a room makes 225 rev. per 

min. and carries a 20-in. pulley from which it is desired to drive 

a countershaft 300 rev. pe*- min.; what size pulley must be 

ordered for the covmtershaft? 

20X225 

Solution. — ~ = 15-in. pulley 

300 

Rule. — To find the diameter of a driving pulley, multiply the 
diameter of the driven pulley by the desired speed and divide the 
product by the speed of the driving shaft. 

Example. — Find the size of the pulley required on a driving 
shaft making 360 rev. per min. in order to drive a machine 600 
rev. per min. The size of the driven pulley on the machine 

IS 12 m. 12X600 

Solution. — — = 20-in. pulley 

360 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



351 



Effect of Countershafts on Speed. — It often happens that 
power is transmitted through one or more countershafts, carry- 
ing different-sized pulleys, before being applied to the pulley, 
the speed of which it is desired to find. 

Rule. — To find the speed of a driven pulley when the power is 
transmitted through countershafts, multiph' the speed of the driv- 
ing shaft by the product of the 
diameters of all the driving pul- 
leys and divide the result by the 
product of the diameters of all the 
driven pulleys. 

Example.' — Referring to 
P*^ the accompanying figure, as- 
sume that the driving shaft 
makes 375 rev. per min. and 
that the main driving pulley a 
is 18 in. in diameter and 
drives a 12-in. pulley & on a 
countershaft. On this coun- 
tershaft a 22-in. pulley c drives 
the 10-in. pulley d of a ma- 
chine. Find the number of 
revolutions of the pulley d. 

375X18in.X22in. 

= 1,237.5 rev. per min. 




Solution. — 



12 in. X 10 in. 

Rule. — To find the surface velocity of a rotating pulley or 
cylinder or the speed of a belt passing around it, in feet per minute 
{slip neglected), multiply the diameter of the pulley or cylinder in 
feet by 3.1416 and by the number of revolutions per minute. 

If the diameter of the pulley or other cylinder is expressed in 
inches, multiply its diameter by 3.1416 and by the number of 
revolutions per minute that it makes and divide the product by 12. 

Example. — Find the surface velocity, in feet per minute, of a 
50-in. cylinder making 160 rev. per min. 

50X3.1416X160 
Solution. — =2,094.4 ft. per min. 

Circumferential Speed of Pulleys. — Pulleys over 4 ft. in 
diameter and flywheels, especially cast-iron ones, should never 



352 USEFUL INFORMATION 

be speeded so fast that their surface velocity exceeds 5,000 ft. 
per min., since there will be a danger of their bursting. Many 
authorities give 3,750 ft. per min. as a limit to the surface speed 
of large pulleys. Smaller pulleys may have a higher surface 
velocity, but excesses should be avoided. 



BELTS 

Care of Belts. — Belts should be run with the smooth, or 
grain, side next to the pulley for the following reasons: (a) 
There is more friction of the belt on the pulley and, therefore, 
less slipping and consequent loss of power. (6) The center of 
strength in a belt is located one-third of the distance through 
the belt from the flesh side and it is better to crimp the grain, 
or weak, side around the pulley than to strain it. (c) The 
stronger side of the belt receives the least wear when run in this 
manner. 

Some authorities recommend that the flesh side of a belt 
be run next to the pulleys; this is contrary to general practice, 
but in some cases it gives good results. 

The lower part of a horizontal or inclined belt should be the 
driving part; then the slack part will run from the top of the 
driving pulley. The sag of the belt will then cause it to 
encompass a greater length of the circumference of both pulleys. 
Long belts, running in any direction other than the vertical, 
work better than short ones, as their weight holds them more 
firmly to their work. There is, however, a disadvantage in 
belts that aie too long, since they greatly increase the strain 
on the bearings of the shaft. 

The accumulations of grease and gummy matter should be 
frequently removed and the belts dressed with castor oil or 
some other suitable dressing on the side of contact, in order to 
keep them moist and pliable. It is bad practice to use rosin to 
prevent slipping; it gums the belt, causes it to crack, and pre- 
vents slipping for only a short time. 

If a belt properly cared for persists in slipping, a wider belt 
or larger pulleys should be used ; the latter to increase the belt 
speed. Belts should not be run tight, as the strain thus pro- 
duced will wear out both the belt and the bearings of the shaft. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



353 



Belt Fastenings. — There are many good methods of fasten- 
ing the ends of belts together, but lacing is generally used, as it 
is flexible like the belt itself, and runs noiselessly over the 
pulleys. The ends to be laced should be cut squarely across 
and the holes in each end for the lacings should be exactly 
opposite each other when the ends are brought together. Very 
narrow belts, or belts having only a small amount of power to 
transmit, usually have only one row of holes punched in each 
end, as in Fig. 1 ; A is the outside of the belt, and B the side 
running next to the pulley. To lace, the lacing should be drawn 



VWvWVWI 





JB 



^i/v^VlAMl lAA/1/A/l/VVlA/J 



Fig. 1 

half way through one of the middle holes, from the under side, 
as for instance through 1 ; the upper end should then be passed 
through S, under the belt and up through 3, back again through 
S and 3, through 4- and up through 5, where an incision is made 
in one side of the lacing, forming a barb that will prevent the 
end from pulling through. The other side of the belt is laced 
with the other end, it first passing up through 4- Unless the 
belt is very narrow, the lacing of both sides should be carried 
on at once. 

Fig. 2 shows a method of lacing where double lace holes are 
used, B being the side to run next to the pulley. The lacing for 
the left side is begun at 1, and continues through £, 3, 4. 5, 6, 
7, 6, 7, 4, 5, etc. A 6-in. belt should have seven holes, four in 
the row nearest the end, and a 10-in. belt, nine holes. The 



354 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



edges of the holes should not be nearer than f in. from the sides; 
and the holes should not be nearer than J in. from the ends of 
the belt. The second row should be at least If in. from the end. 
Another method is to begin the lacing at one side instead of in 
the middle. This method will give the rows of lacing on the 
under side of the belt the same thickness all the way across. 

Quarter-Turn Belts. — ^When the driving and driven shafts 
are at right angles to each other and are not in the same plane, 
the pulleys must be so placed that the belt is delivered from 







5 1 



A 



% 



mM^ 



^vnMaMaaV^' 



J 



^ 



m/W 



Fig. 2 

one pulley into a plane passing through the center of the face 
of the other pulley. This arraiigement is known as a quarter- 
turn, because, as shown in Fig. 3, a quarter twist is given to the 
belt. A connection of this kind can only be driven in the 
direction indicated by the arrows on the belt. If the direction 
of the belt is reversed it will run off the pulleys unless a guide 
pulley is used. 

The easiest and most convenient way of fixing the position 
of quarter-turn pulleys is to plumb the leaving sides of each 
pulley; that is, drop a plumb-line from the center of the face 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



355 



of the leaving side, where the belt leaves the driving pulley, and 
anange the driven pulley so that the plumb-line shall just 
touch the center of its face on the side from which the belt 
leaves it. This is shown by the two pulleys at the top of Fig. 
3, which represents a plan of two quarter-turn pulleys as seen 
from above. > 

The objection to a quarter-turn belt is that, when the angle 
at which the belt is drawn off the pulleys is large, the belt is 
strained, especially at the edges, and it does not hug the pulleys 
well. Small pulleys placed some distance apart, with narrow 





Fig. 3 Jll 



|FiG. 4 



belts give the best results, from which it follows that quarter- 
turn belts are not well suited to transmit much power. 

Fig. 4 shows how the arrangement can be improved by. placing 
a guide pulley against the loose side of the belt. The driver d 
revolves in a left-hand direction, making ah the driving, or tight, 
side of the belt. To determine the position of the guide pulley, 
select some point in the line ab, as g. When the pulleys differ 
in diameters this point should be somewhat nearer the smaller 
pulley. Draw lines eg and eg; the middle plane of the guide 
pulley should then pass through the two lines. Looked at from 



356 USEFUL INFORMATION 

a direction at right angles to pulley /, line eg coincides with ab ; 
looking at right angles to pulley d, line eg also coincides with ab. 

Length of Belts. — The following rules will enable calcula- 
tions in connection with belts to be performed. 

Rule. — To find the length of an open belt, multiply half the sum 
of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys by 3.1416, and 
to this product add twice the distance between centers. 

Example. — A cotmtershaft is to be driven from the main 

shaft with an open belt, the distance between the centers of the 

shafts is 12 ft., and the diameters of the driving and driven 

pullej'-s are, respectively, 2 and 3 ft.; how long a belt is required? 

2+3 
Solution.— -—=2.5; 2.5X3.1416=7.854 

12X2=24; 24+7.854 = 31.854 ft. of belt 

Note. — In case one pulley is much larger than the other, it is 
well to cut the belt 2 or 3_ in. longer than calculated by the 
above rule. 

Rule. — To find the length of a crossed belt, to one-half the prod- 
uct of the sum of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys 
and 3.1416 add twice the square root of the sum of the square of the 
distance between the centers of the shafts and the square of one-half 
the sum of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys. 

Example. — ^A countershaft is to be driven from the main 

shaft with a crossed belt, the distance between the centers of the 

shafts is 12 ft., and the diameter of the driving and driven 

pulleys are, respectively, 2 and 3 ft. ; how long a belt is required? 

Solution.— (2+3)X3.14i6 ^ ^^^ 

= 7.854 

2 

2X >/l44+2.52 = I 
2X >fl44 + a25 = 
2X Vl50.25 = 

2X12.25 = 24.5 
24.5+7.854 = 32.354 ft. of belt 
Note. — These rules, although not absolutely accurate, are 
near enough for practical purposes when it is impossible to 
measure the length of belt required. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 357 

Horsepower Transmitted by Belts. — ^As the width of a belt 
required to transmit a given horsepower depends on the speed 
and tension of the belt, the size of the smaller pulley, and the 
relative amount of its surface touched by the belt, no rule can 
be given that will apply to all cases. A belt that is being con- 
stantly shifted from a tight to a loose pulley, or vice versa, 
must be wider than one running on the same pulley all the time, 
and innumerable other conditions govern the horsepower cap- 
able of being transmitted by a given belt and the life of the belt. 

It has been found by exhaustive experiments that a single 
belt traveling 900 ft. per minute will transmit approximately 
1 H. P. per inch of width when the arc of contact on the smaller 
pulley does not vary much from 180°. This is used by many 
engineers as a general law for belting and is applied in all cases. 
Prom this fact the following rules in connection with belting 
are obtained. 

Rule. — To find the horsepower transmitted by a given belt, 
divide the product of the width of the belt, in inches, and the speed, 
in feet per minute, by 900. 

Rule. — To find the required width of a belt to transmit a given 
horsepower, divide the horsepower multiplied by 900 by the speed 
of the belt, in feet per minute. 

Example. — Two 48-in. pulleys are to be connected by a single 

belt and make 200 rev. per min.; if 40 H. P. is to be transmitted 

what must be the width of the belt? 

200X48X3.1416 . . , , . 

Solution. — ■ = 2,513 ft. per mm. (nearly) 

40X900 . .,,,,, 

■ = 14.3 m., width of belt 

2,513 
Note. — ^A 14-inch belt might safely be used, since the rule 
gives a liberal width when the pulleys are of equal size. 

In these rules it has been assumed that the belt is open and 
also that the driving and driven pulleys are of the same diam- 
eter, the belt consequently being in contact with half of the 
circumference of each pulley. But when one pulley is larger 
than the other, the horsepower transmitted is reduced as the 
arc of the smaller pulley that is in contact with the belt is 
reduced. With a crossed belt the amount of horsepower that 
can be transmitted by a given width of belt is increased, as there 



358 USEFUL INFORMATION 

is then more of the surface of the pulleys in contact with thie 
belt. 

As the rules for single belts are based on the strength at the 
lace holes, a double belt, which is twice as thick, should be able 
to transmit twice as much power as a single belt and, in fact, 
more than this where, as is very common, the ends of the belt 
are cemented together instead of being laced. Where double 
belts are used on small pulleys, however, the contact with the 
pulley face is less nearly perfect than it would be if a single belt 
were used, owing to the greater rigidity of the former. More 
work is also required to bend the belt as it runs over the pulleys 
than in the case of the thinner and more pliable belt, and the 
centrifugal force tending to throw the belt from the pulley also 
increases with the thickness. For these reasons, the width of a 
double belt required to transmit a given horsepower is generally 
assumed to be seven-tenths the width of a single belt required 
to transrait the same power. Therefore, in order to find the 
width of a double belt required to transmit a given horsepower, 
proceed as with a single belt and raultiply the result by i^; and 
in order to find the horsepower transmitted by a given width 
of a double belt, proceed as with a single belt and multiply the 
result by ■^. 



ROPE TRANSMISSION 

Many American mills are introducing rope drives for trans- 
mitting power, especially for the main drives from the engine, 
for which this method is particularly adapted. The distance 
to which power can be transmitted by means of sheave pulleys 
and ropes is practically unlimited, as is also the amount of 
power< Except for very short distances, rope driving is the 
cheapest method of transmitting power, being economical not 
only in the first cost, but in the maintenance. This in itself 
is an important item. An evenness of motion that cannot be 
obtained by any other system of power transmission is obtained 
by transmitting power in this manner; this is due to the light- 
ness, elasticity, and slackness of the rope, which takes up all 
inequalities between the power and the load. Rope drives 
are noiseless because of the flexibility and lubrication of the 



USEFUL INFORMATION 359 

rope and because of the air passage underneath the rope, owing 
to the V-shaped groove in which it runs. An exact aUnement 
of the driving and driven pulleys is not necessary when ropes 
are used, and by properly placing idle pulleys power may be 
transmitted in any desired direction. The security that a rope 
drive affords against shut-downs due to the crippUng of the 
drive is one of the great advantages of this system. This is due 
to the fact that before breaking, the rope stretches excessively, 
though gradually , thus giving warning that it should be replaced. 
The absence of electrical disturbances and the alnaost total 
immtmity from slip are among the many advantages that may 
well be claimed by this system for power transmission. 

There are two systems of rope transmission in common use. 
In the first, the transmission is effected by several parallel, 
independent ropes that pass around the flywheel of the engine 
and the pulley or pulleys to be driven. Each rope is made 
quite taut at first, but stretches imtil it slips, after which it is 
respliced. 

In the second system of rope transmission, a single rope, 
having but one splice, is carried around the pulleys as many 
times as is necessary, to transmit the required power; the 
necessary tension is obtained by passing a loop of the rope 
around a weighted pulley. 

The first of the above systems of transmission is used chiefly 
in Europe; the second in the United States. The ropes gener- 
ally used are of manila, hemp or cotton, sometimes with a wire 
core. For transmitting power long distances, especially where 
the rope is exposed to the weather, a wire rope is used. For 
inside drives the cotton rope without a wire core is suitable. 

Next in importance to the rope are the grooved ptdleys, or 
sheaves, on which the rope runs. The grooves are made of 
metal or wood and must be smooth, in order to prevent the rope 
from wearing, and true, to keep it from swaying. These 
grooves are made V-shaped so that they may grip, or bind, the 
rope and not allow it to slip; the rope does not touch the bottom 
of the groove but is wedged in between the sides. 

Rule. — To find the horsepower transmitted by a single rope 
running under favorable conditions in a 45° groove, multiply the 
speed of the rope, in feet per second, by the square of its diameter. 



360 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



in inches, and divide the product by 825. This quotient multiplied 
by the result obtained by subtracting from 200 the speed of the rope 
per second, squared, and divided by 107.2 equals the horsepower 
that can be transmitted with a single rope. 

Example. — ^A flywheel designed for a rope drive is 22 ft. in 
diameter and is equipped with 30 grooves; the diameter of the 
rope is IJ in. and the flywheel makes 50 rev. per min.; what 
horsepower can be safely transmitted? 

Solution, — 

22X3.1416X50 

= 57.596, speed of rope in ft. per sec. 



60 (sec.) 



57.596X(1|)2 



825 
57.596X1. 5625. 

825 



X 



-X 



(200- 



/ ^^ 57.5962\ 

(200 ) 

\ 107.2 / 



107.2 
3317.299216\ 



107.2 

.109083 X (200 - 30.9449) = 
.109083X169.0551 = 18.441, H. P. for one rope. Since there 
are 30 grooves in the flywheel, in each of which there is one rope, 
the total power transmitted will be 18.441X30=553.23 H. P. 



.'76 
































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O fO so 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 /OO UO IZO 130 {40 ISO 
Velociii/inFeet per Second 

The accompanying figure shows the horsepower transmitted 
by 1-in., li-in., l^-in., l|-in.,and2-in.ropesfor various velocities. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 361 

The horizontal distances represent velocities in feet per second, 
and the vertical distances the horsepower transmitted by a 
single rope. It shows that the maximum power is obtained 
at a speed of about 84 ft. per second. For higher velocities, 
the centrifugal force becomes so great that the power is 
decreased, and when the speed reaches 145 ft. per second, the 
centrifugal force just balances the tension, so that no power at 
all is transmitted. Consequently, a rope should not run faster 
than about 5,000 ft. per min., and it is preferable, on the score 
of durability, to limit the velocity to 3,500 it. per min. 



GEARING 

The transmission of power for short distances at slow speeds, 
as between the driving and driven shaft of a machine, is gener- 
ally accomplished by means of gears. Gears are ordinarily 
made of cast iron; if great strength is required, steel may be 
used. Gears that are called on to resist shocks may be made 
of gun metal or phosphor bronze. Fast-running gears are 
sometimes made of rawhide or fiber instead of metal. 

For solving problems that deal with gears, use the same rules 
as are given for pulleys, remembering that the number of teeth 




on the driving gear or gears multiplied together and by the 
speed of the first driver equals the number of teeth on the driven 
gear or gears times the speed of the last driven gear. Speeds 
and sizes of gears, like pulleys, should be treated by proportion. 
Intermediate gears should not be used when finding speeds or 
sizes of gears. 

Rule. — To find the speed of a driven gear, multiply the speed of 
the first driving gear by its number of teeth and by the number of 



362 USEFUL INFORMATION 

teeth on each driving gear in the train, if there is more than one, 

and divide the product by the number of teeth on the driven gear 

or by the product of the teeth on the driven gears. 

Example. — Suppose that the shaft e in the accompanying 

figure is the driving shaft and makes 40 rev. per min. ; find the 

number of revolutions of the driven shaft / when a and c have 

each 24 teeth and d and 6 11 teeth. 

40X24X24 

Solution. — —=190.413 rev. per mm. 

11X11 

A good method of determining whether a gear is a driver 
or driven gear is to notice which side of its teeth are worn, 
or polished smooth. The driving gear always has its teeth 
polished on the side facing in the direction in which the gear 
is moving; a driven gear has the opposite side of the teeth 
polished; and an intermediate gear has both sides of the teeth 
worn. 

Constants. — It often happens that though a machine con- 
tains a more or less complicated train of gears, only one of them 
is changed for alterations in the speed of the driven gear. This 
gear is known as a change gear, and the arrangement of the train 
is such that its size may readily be changed without disturbing 
the other members of the train. If the change gear is a driven 
gear, an increase in its size wiU. diminish the speed of the driven 
gear or shaft. If it is a driver, an increase in its size will 
increase the speed of the driven gear or shaft. 

Where a train of gears is employed, the calculation of the 
required size of change gear to produce a given speed of the 
driven gear becomes rather long unless some method of short- 
ening the operation is adopted. This may be accomplished 
by partly performing the operation and securing a number that 
expresses the value of the train, excluding the change gear, and 
that needs but one multiplication or division to obtain the 
desired speed or the desired size of change gear; such a ntimber 
is called a constant. 

A constant ntunber may be either a constant factor or a 
constant dividend. A constant factor is a number that, when 
multinlied by the change gear, gives the speed of the driven 
shaft of a train of gears and, when divided into the speed of the 
driven shaft, gives the number of teeth in the change gear. A 



USEFUL INFORMATION 363 

constant dividend is a number that, when divided by the number 
of teeth in a change gear, gives the speed of the driven shaft 
of a train of gears, and, when divided by the speed of the 
driven shaft, gives the number of teeth in the change gear. 

For all speed calculations the constant number for a train 
of gears is a constant factor if the change gear is a driver and a 
constant dividend if the change gear is a driven gear. Where a 
constant number is used in connection with some result depend- 
ent on the action of a train of gears, it may be either a con- 
stant factor or dividend, depending on whether the value of the 
said result is increased or decreased by an increase in the size 
of the change gear. 

Rule. — To find a constant, perform the calculation of the train 
of gears in the ordinary manner, using a theoretical change gear 
of one tooth. 

Example. — A certain roll is driven as follows: The first 
driving gear has 40 teeth and makes 390 rev. per min. ; this gear 
drives a 39-tooth gear attached to a shaft on which there is also 
a 64-tooth gear driving a 32-tooth gear on a shaft. On this 
latter shaft is fastened a 40-tooth gear that drives a 40-tooth 
gear on another shaft; on this shaft a change gear drives a 
12S-tooth gear on the shaft of the roll. What is the constant 
for finding the speed of the roll with various change gears? 

Solution. — In this case the constant number must be a con- 
stant factor, as the change gear is a driver and an increase in its 
size increases the speed of the roll. 

390X40X64X40X1 

= 6.25, constant factor. 

39X32X40X128 

Note — If any change gear is used, its size multiplied by 6.25 
in this case, will give the speed of the roll; also, if any speed is 
desired, the required change gear can be found by dividing 
the desired speed by 6.25. 

The pitch circle of a gear is an imaginary circle described, 
with the axis of rotation for a center, through the point of con- 
tact of the teeth of one gear with those of another gear. It is 
the effective circumference of a gear and really determines its 
ratio of velocity when working with other gears. 

The circular pitch of a gear is the distance between the centers 
of two consecutive teeth measured on the pitch circle or, as it is 
sometimes called, the pitch line. 



364 USEFUL INFORMATION 

The diametral pitch of a gear is equal to the number of teeth 
on its circumference divided by the number of inches in the 
diameter of the pitch circle. In order to mesh and run together, 
gears must be of the same pitch. 

Sizing Gear-Blanks. — Many mills are equipped with 
machines for cutting gears to replace broken or worn ones, 
making change gears, etc. When it is desired to cut a gear, 
it is necessary to select a gear-blank of the correct diameter 
for the desired number of teeth and pitch. 

Rule. — To find the desired diameter of blank for any number 
of teeth and any diametral pitch, add 2 to the required nu?nber of 
teeth and divide by the desired pitch; the quotient is the diameter, 
expressed in inches, of the blank required. 

Example. — ^A change gear with 33 teeth and 10-pitch is 

desired. To what diameter must the gear-blank be turned? 

33+2 

Solution. — ■ =3^ in. 

10 

Rule. — To find the number of teeth the gear-cutter must space 
to cut a given blank a required pitch, multiply the diameter of the 
blank by the required pitch and from the product thus obtained 
subtract 2; the answer is the number of teeth required. 

Example. — ^How many teeth must the gear-cutter space to 
cut a gear-blank 2J in. in diameter, 12-pitch? 

Solution. — 2|X12 = 30; 30-2 = 28 teeth 

Worms and Worm-Gears. — ^A worm is a screw designed to 
mesh with and turn a gear called a worm-gear. Worms are 
single threaded when they have a single thread cut on them and 
double threaded when they have two threads. A worm is always 
a driver, a single-threaded worm driving the worm-gear one 
tooth for each revolution and a double-threaded worm moving 
it two teeth. 

Occasionally worms are 'met with that have three threads 
cut on them. Worms furnish a means of reducing a great 
velocity of a shaft to the slow speed of the worm-gear. 

Rule., — To find the speed of a worm-gear driven by a single- 
or a double-threaded worm: If the worm is single-threaded, divide 
its speed by the number of teeth in the worm-gear. 

If the worm is double-threaded, multiply its speed by 2 and 
divide the product by the number of teeth in the worm-gear. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 365 

Example. — ^An 80-tooth worm-gear is driven by a double- 
threaded worm making 160 rev. per min.; find the number of 
revolutions per minute of the worm-gear. 

160X2 

Solution. — ■ =4 rev. per nun. 

80 

A worm is always a driver and reckoned as a one-tooth gear 
if single threaded and a two-tooth gear if double threaded. 

Mangle Gears. — Mangle gears reverse their direction of rota- 
tion and are always driven gears. They are either eccentric 
or concentric. When concentric the center oi the pitch circle 
coincides with the axis of rotation, and when eccentric the center 
of the pitch circle is removed from the axis of rotation. The 
speed of a mangle gear is found in the same manner as that of an 
ordinary gear, except that its size is reckoned as somewhat 
larger than it really is, because the driving pinion, while round- 
ing each end of the row of pegs, makes a half revolution, which 
moves the mangle but one peg. A mangle gear is said to per- 
form a complete cycle of its movements in making a double 
revolution; that is, one revolution in one direction and one in 
the opposite direction. 

RxJe. — To find how many complete cycles, or double revolutions, 
a mangle gear will make per minute, divide the product of the 
number of revolutions per minute of the driving pinion and the 
number of teeth that it contains by the sum of twice the number of 
pegs in the mangle and the number of teeth in the driving pinion 
diminished by 2. 

Example. — ^A 10-tooth pinion gear making 216 rev. per min. 
drives a mangle gear with 176 teeth, or pegs; how many com- 
plete cycles per minute does the mangle gear make? 

216X10 216X10 

Solution. — — = =6 cycles 

(176X2) + (10 -2) 352+8 

That is, the mangle gear would make 12 revolutions, 6 in one 

direction and 6 in the other. 



366 USEFUL INFORMATION 

LEVERS 

A lever is an inflexible bar capable of being freely moved 
about a fixed point, or Une, called the fulcrum. The bar is 
acted on at two points by two forces that tend to rotate it in 
opposite directions about its fulcrum. Of these two forces, the 
one that is appUed with the purpose of imparting motion is 
termed the power, while the force that is to be overcome is the 
weight, of resistance. The parts af and bf. Fig. 1, are the arms 
of the lever. 



Fig. 1 

There are three classes, or varieties, of levers; if the fulcrum 
is between the power and the weight {p, /, w) , as shown in Fig. 1 , 
the lever is of the first class. In this combination equilibrium 
exists if the product of the force p times arm af equals the 
product of the force w times arm bf. 



Fig. 2 

If the weight is between the power and the fulcrum (p, w.f) as 
shown in Fig. 2, the lever is of the second class. 

If the power is between the weight and the fulcrum (w, p,f), 
the lever is of the third class. Fig. 3. 

Sometimes it is not convenient to use a lever sufficiently long 
to make a given power support a given weight. In this case 
combinations of levers known as compound levers are used. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 367 

Rule. — To find the weight supported or the pressure exerted at 
the weight end of the lever, the length of the weight arm, the length 
of the power arm, and the power applied being known, multiply the 



Fig. 3 

power by the length of the power arm and divide the product by the 
length of the weight arm. 

Example. — ^A 25-lb. weight is placed on a lever that is so con- 
nected as to exert a pressure on a pair of rolls; the weight is 4 
ft. from the fulcrum of the lever, and the rod connecting the 
lever with the rolls is 1| ft. from the fulcrum of the lever; find 
the pressure exerted. 

25X4 
Solution. — —^ — =66f lb. pressure 

Any problem of levers may be solved by treating it as a pro- 
portion in which the power is to the weight as the weight arm 
is to the power arm; and, as in proportion the product of the 
extremes is equal to the product of the means, so the power 
times the power arm equals the weight times the weight arm. 

With compound levers, the continued product of the power 
multiplied by the power arms is equal to the continued product 
of the weight multiplied by all the weight arms, every alternate 
arm of the combination of levers, starting with the power arm, 
being a power arm and every alternate arm, starting with 
the weight arm, being a weight arm. 

Example. — ^A 40-lb. weight (power) acts through the follow- 
ing power arms:. 4 ft., 3 ft., and 3 ft., respectively; the corre- 
sponding weight arms being 3 ft., 2 ft., and 2 ft., respectively; 
what weight is supported, or pressure exerted, at the extremity 
of the last weight arm? 

40X4X3X3 

Solution. — ■ = 120 lb. 

3X2X2 



NlEVrORANDA 



NIENIORANIDA 



NIENIORAND^ 



NIEIVLORANDA 



\ 



NiE;]VtORANDA 



NIENIORANDA 



Promotion 
Advancement in Salary 

and 

'^ Business Success 

Secured 
Through the 

COMPLETE COnON 

Cotton Carding and Spinning 

Cotton Designing 

Complete Woolen 

Woolen Carding and Spinning 

Woolen and Worsted Designing 

Complete Textile Designing 

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
OF THE 

International 
Correspondence Schools 

International Textbook 
Company, Proprietors 

SCRANTON, PA.. U. S. A. 

K^y^ SEE FOLLOWING PAGES ^V^ 



His Course Made Him 
Successful 

When I began taking your Complete Cotton 
Course, for which I subscribed with the I. C. S., 
I was working as overseer in a small cloth room. 
Being ambitious to get something better I 
studied the Course diligently, and before fin- 
ishing it I secured a position in a large mill, 
doubling my salary. A year later I came to 
my present position with the Pelzer Manu- 
facturing Co., as cloth-room overseer with a 
further increase in salary. I have held this 
place in one of the largest mills in the South 
for 4 years and have had my salary raised 
again. A large part of my success is due to the 

I. C. S. 

Alonzo T. Guy, 

Pelzer, S. C. 



GOOD RESULTS FOLLOW TRAINING 

W. T. Hall, Gibsonville, N. C, was employed as a 
second hand when he enrolled with us for the Fancy Cot- 
ton Weaving Course. This has secured his promotion to 
the position of overseer of weaving with a salary that has 
been nearly doubled. 

SALARY INCREASED 200 PER CENT. 

John W. Lord, 175 Newton St., New Bedford, Mass., 
thinks that any young man who is ambitious cannot do 
better than to take an I.C.S. Course. When he enrolled 
with us for the Cotton Spinning and Warp Preparation 
Course, he was a second hand earning about $12 a week. 
He is now overseer at the Gornold mills and his salary has 
increased almost 200 per cent. 

SALARY TRIPLED 

E. W. Smith, 2410 Whitesboro St., Utica, N. Y., says 
that the knowledge gained from his Cotton Carding and 
Spinning Course for which he subscribed with the I.C.S. 
has enabled him to secure and hold a position as overseer 
of the carding department of the Utica Fine Yarn Co. He 
was employed as a third hand when he enrolled. 

THE I.C.S. THE MAKING OF HIM 

J. B. Batton, Box 23, Rosemary, N. C, enrolled with us 
for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, and got 
right down to work. He says that what he knows today he 
learned from the Course which has been the making of 
him, securing his promotion to the position of overseer for 
the Rosemary Manufactviring Co. and doubling his salary. 

NOW SUPERINTENDENT 

Arthltr Thrope, Fayetteville, Tenn., was employed as a 
carder when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton 
Carding and Spinning Course. He says that this gave him 
the courage to tackle any practical problem.s that came his 
way, and enabled him to make one advancement after 
another, until he is now the superintendent of the Elk 
Cotton Mills with an increase in salary of 275 per cent. 

READY FOR THE OPPORTUNITY 

Chas. F. Campbell, Gibsonville, N. C, was running a 
fly frame when he began to study our Cotton Carding and 
Spinning Course. The superintendent saw that he was 
trying to better his job and set him to learn to grind 
cards. Eighteen months later the overseer resigned and 
Mr. Campbell was given his position with a large increase 
in salary. Had he not been prepared he would have been 
obliged to refuse a position that promises better things in 
the future. 



Hi^h Praise From a 
Successful Student 

I wish that I had more education to express 
my feeKngs toward the International Corre- 
spondence Schools, but I have no words to tell 
all the good they have done me. It is not 
easy to study and work at the same time, but 
I can say that it is better to spend one's 
evenings in study than to stand on the comer 
every night. There is no money coming at the 
end of the week for standing at the corner. 

When I enrolled with the I. C. S., October 
19, 1907, I could write but very little and I 
knew almost nothing about figuring. How- 
ever, I completed the first part of arithmetic 
with a grade of 100 per cent. Not so bad for a 
man who did not know anything about arith- 
metic and who was at work every day. I am 
also married and have 4 children. But I 
completed the section on arithmetic with a 
percentage of 98, and also the section on card- 
ing. 

When I enrolled with the I. C. S. I was only 
a fixer. I am at present overseer of carding 
for I. K. Stewart & Sons and am doing well. 
My pay has doubled since enrolment — all 
thanks to the I. C. S. If any one desires to 
know what the I. C. S. can do, let him write 
to me. 

Every night when I come back from work — 

even at 10 o'clock, I have to visit my I. C. S. 

library before taking a rest, and I have done 

that ever since I signed for my Course in 1907, 

Michael Bessette, 

68 Academy St., 

Amsterdam, N. Y. 



SALARY MORE THAN DOUBLED 

Jas. R. Frye, Marion, N. C, a graduate of our Cotton 
Carding and Spinning Course, was earning $1.25 a day as 
card grinder when he enrolled for the Course. At that 
time he could barely read and write. He is now overseer 
of the card room for the Marion Manufacturing Co., and 
his salary has been increased $1.75 a day. 

NOW PARTNER 

Erhard M. Mayer, 1731 Milan St., New Orleans, La., 
was clerking in an office when he enrolled with the I.C.S. 
for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. He is at- 
present in partnership with his brothers, running the Na- 
tional Hosiery Mills, an enterprise which he has helped to 
establish. 

125 PER CENT. INCREASE 

Reg. p. Jackson, Yorkville, S. C, was working as a 
second hand in the spinning room before taking up his 
Cotton Carding and Spinning Course with the I.C.S. He 
would not sell at any price his Course which has made him 
overseer of spinning and twisting for the Neely Manu- 
facturing Co., at an increase in salary of 125 per cent. 

ADVANCEMENT CAME THROUGH HIS COURSE 

C. C. Tate, Box 5, Cliffside, N. C, had received very 
little education and was earning only small wages in the 
card room when he enrolled with the I.C.S. Had it not 
been for his Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, he 
would still be earning that small salary, he says. With the 
help of his Course he has become overseer in the card 
room of the Clififside mills, the largest gingham manufac- 
turing plant in the South. 

IT PAID 

Aloysius A. Dankel, Coplay, Pa., declares that it paid 
him to subscribe for our Complete Textile Designing 
Course. He was a loom fixer when he enrolled with the 
I.C.S., but he is now foreman weaver for the John H. 
Meyer Silk Co. His wages have been considerably in- 
creased. 

WORTH TWICE THE PRICE 

The Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, for which 
W. B. CoGART, Roxboro, N. C, enrolled, has been worth 
to him twice what he paid for it. He was then earning 
ordinary wages. He became assistant superintendent of 
the Roxboro Cotton Mills, earning nearly twice as much. 



Now an Officer of the 
Company 

I can recommend the Complete Woolen 
Course, for which I enrolled with the Inter- 
national Correspondence Schools, to any one 
anxious to improve his position. I received 
my practical knowledge in the mill and at the 
same time find your Bound Volumes are of 
considerable help to me. I was earning 
small wages as a bookkeeper when I first 
enrolled, btit have now become the secretary 
and treasurer of the Slingsby Manufactur- 
ing Co., and also the manager of our six-set 
blanket mill, employing 225 persons. 
John B. Varey, 

Brantford, Ontario, Can. 



5ALARY NEARLY DOUBLED 

N. H. McGuiRE, Fort Mill, S. C, was a second hand 
having but little education when he enrolled with us. He 
now has charge of weaving for the Fort Mill Manufactur- 
ing Co., at a salary nearly double what he received at the 
time of enrolment. 

GAINED PROMOTION— SALARY INCREASED 

A. R. Drake, Collegepark, Ga., has been promoted from 
second hand to overseer and his salary has been increased 
$40 a month, since he completed the Cotton Carding and 
Spinning Course, for which he subscribed with the I.C.S. 
He is now employed in the Gate City hosiery mill and is 
proud of his diploma. 

SALARY INCREASED 150 PER CENT. 

John Bauer, 325 Earle St., New Bedford, Mass., would 
still be fixing looms had it not been for his Complete 
Textile Designing Course with the I.C.S. He is now 
overseer for the New Bedford Cotton Mills Co., having 
organized his department when the new mill started. His 
salary has been increased about ISO per cent. He says his 
I.C.S. Course did it. 

GRADUATE RECEIVES 300 PER CENT. INCREASE 

R. H. Armfield, Greensboro, N. C, has been promoted 
to the position of overseer of carding for the Proximity 
Manufacturing Co., at White Oak Mills, and his salary 
has been increased more than 300 per cent, since his enrol- 
ment with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and Spinning 
Course. 

BECAME SUPERINTENDENT 

C. N. Steed, Rdckhill, S. C, was an overseer when he 
took out his Course in the Theory of Textile Designi-ng. 
He says this has proved of immense benefit to him, since 
he has now_ become superintendent of the Highland Park 
Manufacturing Co., employing 450 persons. His salary, 
of course, has been greatly advanced. 

■ SALARY DOUBLED 

W. R. BoSTiAN, China Grove, N. C, says that our Cot- 
ton Warp Preparation and Plain Weaving Course has ad- 
vanced him to the position of head loom fixer. His salary 
has been nearly doubled since he enrolled. 



Now Secretary and Treas- 
urer of the Randolph 
Manufacturing Co. 

When I enrolled with the I.C.S. I was 
employed as shipping clerk by the Ran- 
dolph Manufacturing Company of Frank- 
linville. Later on I became bookkeeper, 
still pursuing iny studies at odd times. 

The instruction I received from my 
Course has been of much assistance to me. 
In fact, I feel the Course was indispen- 
sable. It has proved far more valuable 
and useful than my most sanguine expec- 
tations. 

Since obtaining my Diploma I have be- 
come Secretary and Treasurer of the Ran- 
dolph Manufacturing Company, increasing 
my income about 500 per cent. 

Hugh Parks, Jr., 
Franklinville, N. C. 



MULTIPLIED BY TWO 

H. G. McNiSH, 50 Park St., Ware, Mass., held a position 
as card grinder at the time he enrolled with the I. C. S. for the 
Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. At present he is em- 
ployed by the Otis Co. as overseer, and his salary has been 
multiplied by two. 

THREE TIMES mS FORMER SALARY 

E. P. Knowles, Main St., Langley, S. C, was making $1.50 
a day fixing fly frames, when he began to study our Cotton 
Warp Preparation Course. He has advanced to the position 
of overseer for the Langley Manufacturing Co. He says he 
could not have made a success of his work if he had not taken 
our Course. 

PROFITABLE STUDY 

Willis Herring, Crichton, Ala., could read and write but 
knew little of arithmetic when he enrolled with the schools for 
the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. At that time he 
was a section hand working for 90 cents a day. His Course not 
only helped him in his work but improved his general education 
as well. He is now overseer of spinning with the Mobile Cotton 
Mills. His salary has been more than doubled. He says if it' 
had not been for his Course he would still be running a section., 

WORTH WORKING FOR 

R. F, Harris, Lowell, N. C, has been so greatly benefited 
by completing our Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, that 
he wishes every boy in the cotton mills could take advantage 
of an I. C. S. Course. His Course has raised him from a 

Eosition as operative to that of assistant superintendent of the 
owell Cotton Mills. 

DID HIM A WORLD OF GOOD 

Christopher J. Wilson, 309 North 14th St., New York, 
N. Y., says that his Theory of Textile Designing Course with 
the I. C. S. did him a world of good. He was employed as 
finish-percher in the Assabeth Mills at the time of enrolment 
with the I. C. S. ; before finishing the Course he became fabric 
examiner at a salary more than doubled. 

FOUR TIMES mS FORMER SALARY 

J. P. TiDWELL, La Grange, Ga., could not add up a column of 
figures correctly and had received but little education at the 
time he enrolled with the Schools for the Cotton Warp Pre- 
paration and Plain Weaving Course. He says that this secured 
for him the position of overseer of weaving for the Unity 
Cotton Mills, increasing his salary 400 per cent. 



The Gateway to Success 

When I enrolled with the International 
Correspondence Schools I occupied the position 
of loom fixer. Since then I have become 
general superintendent of the Ashcraft Cotton 
Mills, and my salary has been increased more 
than 400 per cent. I think your method is 
the gateway to success for a young man that 
wants to rise and who is not able to stop work 
to attend a school. It is undoubtedly the 
best way for a young man or a young woman 
to get the practical part of manufacturing, 
together with the technical part, without 
losing their positions. I am ever ready to 
speak a word in behalf of your grand and 
noble institution, which is calculated to lead 
the working classes to the top, if they will 
only grasp the golden opportunity and apply 
themselves; for advancement is sure to come 
to those who prove their worth. 

R. J. Brown, 

Florence, Ala. 



_l 



10 



SPARE-TIME STUDY IS PROFITABLE 

G. W. Rollins, Box 44, Caroleen, N. C, was working 
as a second hand when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the 
Cotton Warp Preparation and Plain Weaving Course. He 
is now assistant superintendent at a big increase in salary. 

NOW SUPERINTENDENT 

A. T. Brown, Rockhill, S. C, was a second hand in the 
cotton mill when he enrolled for the Special Cotton 
Course. He is now superintendent of the Aragon Cotton 
Mills and his salary has been increased fourfold. 

HOLDS HIS POSITION THROUGH HIS COURSE 

H. Dietrich, Fleetwood, Pa., recommends the Complete 
Textile Designing Course, for which he subscribed with 
the I.C.S. to anj' one who is ambitious to advance himself. 
He was working as a twister when he enrolled, but his 
Course advanced him to his present position as superin- 
tendent of the Fleetwood Silk Co., with an increase in 
salary of about 80 per cent. 

HE WAS AMBITIOUS 

At the end of 18 years' work in the cotton mills, HErRY 
R. Bolton, Box 113, McColl, S. C, was only a fly-frane 
tender. At that time his ambition to succeed took hold of 
him and he remembered that he had seen an I.C.S. adver- 
tisement. He enrolled for the Cotton Carding and Spin- 
ning Course and devoted every spare moment to study. 
Within 2 months he was made a card grinder, and within 
a year was given another promotion. For the past 
5 months he has been overseer of carding for the Marl- 
boro Manufacturing Co., and his salary has been doubled. 

NOW SUPERINTENDENT 

O. L. Wagstaff, Thomasville, N. C, was earning $1 a 
day in a carding mill when he enrolled for the Cotton 
Carding and Spinning Course. He is now superintendent 
of the Amazon Cotton Mills Co., employing 126 persons. 
His salary has been increased several hundred per cent. 

A YOUNG MAN'S PROMOTION 

J. C. Jolly, Valmead, N. C, was working as a band boy 
when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding 
and Spinning Course. He now has full charge at night of 
the Moore Cotton Mill Co. mill at Lenoir, N. C. 

11 



Salary Increased 300 
Per Cent. 

There is nothing better in this world for any 
young man who is trying to get ahead in the 
world, as I have found it a good thing and I feel 
much pleased over your instructions; I think 
that this is the only way to learn. I encourage 
every young man to invest his spare moments 
in this way. Before I enrolled with the School 
of Textiles my education was not worth men- 
tioning in regard to calculations, etc. But 
today I can say that I have learned a great 
deal from your Schools in regard to calculations, 
weaves, and machinery. And if I had not 
enrolled with your Schools I would not have 
been able to hold my present position today. 
I advise all men who wish to make this world 
a success to start in at once and spend a few 
moments each day at this study, which they 
will not regret in the future. I have found it a 
grand study. I have obtained a good position 
and my salary has increased 300 per cent, 
since I have enrolled with the Schools. After 
holding a position as designer I can understand 
how much your instructions have taught me 
in every way in regard to calculations, weaves, 

etc.. 

O. C. Drechsler, 

Box 1121, 

Maynard, Mass, 



12 



NOW OVERSEER 

N. B. Hill, 306 W. Bl9unt St., Kinston, N. C, was 
working as a second hand in the spinning room when he 
began to study with the I.C.S. on our Cotton Carding and 
Spinning Course. This has enabled him to become over- 
seer of spinning for the Caswell Cotton Mill. 

NOW SECRETARY AND TREASURER 

J. H. Chambliss, West, Tex., was a bookkeeper when 

he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and 

- Spinning Course. He is now secretary and treasurer of 

the Brazos Valley Cotton Mills, receiving four times as 

much salary as he did at the time of enrolment. 

HIS COURSE HELPED 

Wm. Cain, Pine Meadow, Conn., had attended school 
for only a short time in his eleventh and twelfth years. 
While he was earning ordinary wages he enrolled with the 
Schools for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. He 
is now overseer of carding and spinning for D. B. Smith 
Sons. 

NOW SUPERINTENDENT 

A. I. McDonald, St. Paul, N. C, had reached the second 
grade only in public school when he weiit into the cotton 
mill, at the age of 11. When 28 years old, he enrolled 
with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and Spinning 
Course. He is now the superintendent of the St. Paul 
Cotton Mill Co., employing 200 persons. 

WOULD NOT SELL HIS COURSE FOR $1,000 

B. W. Bingham, Ozark, Ala., had only 3 months' 
schooling before starting work in the cotton mills. He 
could read but little and could hardly write at all, when 
he enrolled with us for the Cotton Carding and Spinning 
Course, from which he graduated. At the time of enrol- 
ment he was working as a second hand. He is now 
general superintendent of the Ozark Cotton Mills and his 
salary has increased about 900 per cent. He says that if 
he could sell it for $1,000 he would not take the money 
and be without his Course. 

NOW PROPRIETOR 

Rollin R. Rhodabarger, Keyser, W. Va., was employed 
as an overseer when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the 
Woolen Carding, Spinning and Weaving Course, from 
which he graduated. He is now superintendent, Woolen 
Department, Patchett Worsted Co., being also a stock- 
holder in that Company. His salary of course has been 
largely increased. 

13 



His Early Promotion Due 
to the I. C. S. 

At the time I enrolled in the I. C. S. for a 
Complete Cotton Course, I was boss weaver at 
the Elmira Cotton Mills. Something like one 
year afterward I was promoted at the same 
mill to superintendent. I am sure that my 
early promotion was due to my enrolment in 
your Schools, and I am equally confident that 
my ability to fill my position successfully is due 
to the training I received from you. I had 
only a very simple education, such as I could 
get from the old field free schools, up to 10 
years of age when I enrolled. The training 
I received in mathematics alone has been worth 
the expense and time spent on the entire Course. 
I was earning the usual wages when I first 
enrolled. I now earn twice as much, with a 
nice house furnished free. 

John G. King, 

Burlington, N. C. 



14 



SALARY INCREASED 500 PER CENT. 

A. H. McCarrel, Bath, S. C, began the study of our 
Complete Cotton Course while serving as paymaster for 
the Aiken Manufacturing Co. He is now general manager 
of the same company, and also of the Seminole Manufac- 
turing Co., employing about 700 persons. Since enrol- 
ment his income has increased more than 500 per cent. 

SUPERINTENDENT OF A LARGE MILL 

T. E. Gardner, Greensboro, N. C, had been set to work 
at the age of 13, and had received but little education at 
the time of his enrolment for the Cotton Carding and 
Spinning Course. At the time he was a night overseer. 
Since obtaining his dioloma he has become superintendent 
of the White Oak mills, employing 1,500 persons. 

225 PER CENT. INCREASE 

Frank E. Heymer, Lando, S. C, was a designer "when 
he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Complete Cotton 
Course. Although he had trouble to learn English his 
Course has enabled him to become superintendent of the 
Manetta Mills and his salary has increased 225 per cent. 

BECAME SUPERINTENDENT 

RoBT. Wm. Boys, New Market, N. H., started to work in 
the cotton mills at the age of 10. He was employed as an over- 
seer of weaving at the time he enrolled with us for the Complete 
Cotton Course. He is now superintendent of the New Market 
Manufacturing Co., employing 900 hands. 

AN AMBITIOUS STUDENT 

C. C. PoiNDEXTER, Box 539, Winston-Salem, N. C, was 
working for the Chatham Manufacturing Co. as a stenographer. 
Being ambitious he took up a Coiirse with the I. C. S. in Woolen 
Carding, Spinning and Weaving. When the superintendent 
resigned he was immediately promoted to his position with an 
increase of 50 per cent, in salary, which has since been increased 
by one-third. 

STEPPING UPWARD 

J. RoBiE Cove, 26 West 6th St., Lowell, Mass., enrolled with 
the Schools at the age of 16 for the Complete Cotton Course. 
He had just gone to work as an office boy. Since then he has 
taken the following steps upward: apprentice, machinist, tool- 
maker, inspector, draftsman, mill designer, assistant mechan- 
ical .superintendent, and now master mechanic for one of the 
largest cotton mills in New England. He says that the rapidity 
of his advancement was due to the assistance received from Ws 
Course and the Library of Technology. 

15 



Rapid Promotion 
Followed Study 

When I began studying your Course, I had 
charge of a beaming room and was doing a 
little designing for plain looms. I had secured 
a few books and was reading them, when I 
decided that a Course in your Schools was the 
thing that would fit me for advancement. 
I assure you that from the start your instruc- 
tion gave me more confidence; I was promoted 
so fast and had so much new work to do that 
I had to postpone the last two lessons of my 
Course for some time. Correspondence instruc- 
tion is beneficial in many ways. It develops 
your ideas, gives you more confidence in your- 
self, and consequently increases your ability. 
Your training has been very beneficial to me, 
and I recommend it to all who wish to fit them- 
selves for advancement. I am now getting 
along very nicely and every day can see the 
advantages of having taken the Course. I am 
now one of the proprietors of the Montgomery 
Worsted Mills. 

Benj. B. Crowther, 
Conshohocken, Pa. 



347-90 



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